{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T06:55:34Z","timestamp":1790751334012,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Generative artificial intelligence (AI) tutors rarely disagree. Drawing on cognitive offloading theory, this study examines how perceived AI sycophancy (PAS) and perceived AI intellectual stimulation (PAIS) relate to learner autonomy through the serial mediators of metacognitive laziness (MCL) and AI dependence (AIDEP).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Responses from 542 university students using generative AI for coursework were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), necessary condition analysis (NCA), and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Perceived sycophancy was associated with greater MCL (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.38), whereas intellectual stimulation was associated with lower levels of MCL (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      = \u22120.29); laziness predicted AIDEP (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.45), and dependence predicted lower autonomy (\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      = \u22120.30). Both serial paths were significant and opposite in sign, explaining 46% of autonomy variance. NCA identified intellectual stimulation as the tightest necessary condition, and fsQCA showed that no high-autonomy configuration tolerated sycophancy\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Because data are cross-sectional and self-reported, findings indicate associations rather than causation. Perceived interaction style, not usage intensity, correlated most with autonomous learning.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1957447","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T06:00:59Z","timestamp":1790748059000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["How AI sycophancy shapes learner autonomy in digitalized learning: the mediating roles of metacognitive laziness and AI dependence"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mazhar Hussain","family":"Choudhary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Business Administration, Department of Economics and Finance, University of Ha\u2019il","place":["Ha\u2019il, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ghulam","family":"Dastgeer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Business Administration, Department of Management and Information Systems, University of Ha\u2019il","place":["Ha'il, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaikh Aftab","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Business Administration, Department of Economics and Finance, University of Ha\u2019il","place":["Ha\u2019il, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Mohsin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Business, Hunan University of Humanities, Science and Technology, Hunan Province","place":["Loudi, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sobia","family":"Naseem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Economics and Management, Hunan University of Arts and Science","place":["Hunan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.2466\/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517","article-title":"Development of a Facebook addiction scale","volume":"110","author":"Andreassen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105310364175","article-title":"Development and psychometric properties of the transformational teaching questionnaire","volume":"15","author":"Beauchamp","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143823","article-title":"Self-regulated learning: beliefs, techniques, and illusions","volume":"64","author":"Bjork","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3449287","article-title":"To trust or to think: cognitive forcing functions can reduce overreliance on AI in AI-assisted decision-making","volume":"5","author":"Bu\u00e7inca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1621540","article-title":"Development and validation of the conversational AI dependence scale for Chinese college students","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaec8352","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aec8352","article-title":"Sycophantic AI decreases prosocial intentions and promotes dependence","volume":"391","author":"Cheng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2014.965823","article-title":"The ICAP framework: linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes","volume":"49","author":"Chi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref8","volume-title":"Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences","author":"Cohen","year":"1988"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2023.104967","article-title":"Impact of AI assistance on student agency","volume":"210","author":"Darvishi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.25300\/MISQ\/2015\/39.2.02","article-title":"Consistent partial least squares path modeling","volume":"39","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2015","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20965311261450994","article-title":"Assessing AI-driven metacognitive offloading: initial development and validation of the metacognitive laziness scale","volume":"9","author":"Dizon","year":"2026","journal-title":"ECNU Rev. Educ."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428115584005","article-title":"Necessary condition analysis (NCA): logic and methodology of \u201cnecessary but not sufficient\u201d causality","volume":"19","author":"Dul","year":"2016","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428118795272","article-title":"A statistical significance test for necessary condition analysis","volume":"23","author":"Dul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100612453266","article-title":"Improving students\u2019 learning with effective learning techniques: promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology","volume":"14","author":"Dunlosky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci. Public Interest"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16061014","article-title":"In-class AI use and attitudes among university students: the different mediating roles of cognitive relief and cognitive offloading","volume":"16","author":"Fan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13544","article-title":"Beware of metacognitive laziness: effects of generative artificial intelligence on learning motivation, processes, and performance","volume":"56","author":"Fan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.5465\/amj.2011.60263120","article-title":"Building better causal theories: a fuzzy set approach to typologies in organization research","volume":"54","author":"Fiss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066x.34.10.906","article-title":"Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry","volume":"34","author":"Flavell","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1177\/002224378101800104","article-title":"Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error","volume":"18","author":"Fornell","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/soc15010006","article-title":"AI tools in society: impacts on cognitive offloading and the future of critical thinking","volume":"15","author":"Gerlich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Societies"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1177\/1476127018786487","article-title":"Studying configurations with qualitative comparative analysis: best practices in strategy and organization research","volume":"16","author":"Greckhamer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Strategic Organ."},{"key":"ref22","volume-title":"A primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM)","author":"Hair","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1108\/ebr-11-2018-0203","article-title":"When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM","volume":"31","author":"Hair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-014-0403-8","article-title":"A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling","volume":"43","author":"Henseler","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1108\/imr-09-2014-0304","article-title":"Testing measurement invariance of composites using partial least squares","volume":"33","author":"Henseler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Mark. Rev."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1111\/ejed.12533","article-title":"State of the art and practice in AI in education","volume":"57","author":"Holmes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Educ."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13325","article-title":"Human and artificial intelligence collaboration for socially shared regulation in learning","volume":"54","author":"J\u00e4rvel\u00e4","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15101348","article-title":"Effect of GenAI dependency on university students\u2019 academic achievement: the mediating role of self-efficacy and moderating role of perceived teacher caring","volume":"15","author":"Jia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Sci. (Basel)"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2023.102274","article-title":"ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education","volume":"103","author":"Kasneci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Learn. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2013.804395","article-title":"Do learners really know best? Urban legends in education","volume":"48","author":"Kirschner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Common method bias in PLS-SEM: a full collinearity assessment approach","volume":"11","author":"Kock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. e-Collab."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/isj.12131","article-title":"Minimum sample size estimation in PLS-SEM: the inverse square root and gamma-exponential methods","volume":"28","author":"Kock","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. J."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4569","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-31341-0","article-title":"Chatgpt\u2019s inconsistent moral advice influences users\u2019 judgment","volume":"13","author":"Kr\u00fcgel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.6.1121","article-title":"Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one\u2019s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments","volume":"77","author":"Kruger","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.76.5.619","article-title":"Construction and validation of an instrument for measuring ingratiatory behaviors in organizational settings","volume":"76","author":"Kumar","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1988.10478722","article-title":"A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values","volume":"83","author":"Little","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1080\/03075070903502703","article-title":"The development of a brief measure of learner autonomy in university students","volume":"35","author":"Macaskill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1111\/ejed.12527","article-title":"Towards hybrid human-AI learning technologies","volume":"57","author":"Molenaar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Educ."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.106096","article-title":"Students' attitudes toward AI teaching assistants in education: considering the role of characteristics and perceptions in Ha'il, Saudi Arabia","volume":"262","author":"Muneer","year":"","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-026-07532-1","article-title":"Emotional creepiness and technological proficiency - understanding AI\/GPT tools in the digitalization era","volume":"13","author":"Muneer","year":"","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Article 100020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2021.100020","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in education: the three paradigms","volume":"2","author":"Ouyang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102310","article-title":"Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA): guidelines for research practice in information systems and marketing","volume":"58","author":"Pappas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1287\/mksc.1120.0718","article-title":"Handling endogenous regressors by joint estimation using copulas","volume":"31","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226702797.001.0001","volume-title":"Redesigning Social Inquiry: Fuzzy Sets and Beyond","author":"Ragin","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1108\/imds-11-2019-0638","article-title":"When predictors of outcomes are necessary: guidelines for the combined use of PLS-SEM and NCA","volume":"120","author":"Richter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ind. Manag. Data Syst."},{"key":"ref47","volume-title":"SmartPLS 4 [Computer Software]","author":"Ringle","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.07.002","article-title":"Cognitive offloading","volume":"20","author":"Risko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.2307\/1177234","article-title":"Partners in cognition: extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies","volume":"20","author":"Salomon","year":"1991","journal-title":"Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref50","author":"Sharma","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1108\/ejm-02-2019-0189","article-title":"Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: guidelines for using PLSpredict","volume":"53","author":"Shmueli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mark."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1207745","article-title":"Google effects on memory: cognitive consequences of having information at our fingertips","volume":"333","author":"Sparrow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614559285","article-title":"Saving-enhanced memory: the benefits of saving on the learning and remembering of new information","volume":"26","author":"Storm","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.2307\/41409972","article-title":"Integrating technology addiction and use: an empirical investigation of online auction users","volume":"35","author":"Turel","year":"2011","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-024-02024-1","article-title":"When combinations of humans and AI are useful: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Vaccaro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1781101","article-title":"Cognitive offloading through digital tools and its relationship with critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref57","article-title":"When cognitive offloading becomes dependence: how AI dependence mediates the pathway from academic stress to burnout and anxiety","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"BMC Psychol."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1086\/691462","article-title":"Brain drain: the mere presence of one\u2019s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity","volume":"2","author":"Ward","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Consum. Res."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1732837","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1732837","article-title":"The impact mechanism of artificial intelligence dependence on college students\u2019 innovation capability: an empirical study from China","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-024-00316-7","article-title":"The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students\u2019 cognitive abilities: a systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Zhai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Smart Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-024-00467-0","article-title":"Do you have AI dependency? The roles of academic self-efficacy, academic stress, and performance expectations on problematic AI usage behavior","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1086\/651257","article-title":"Reconsidering baron and Kenny: myths and truths about mediation analysis","volume":"37","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Consum. Res."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1207\/s15430421tip4102_2","article-title":"Becoming a self-regulated learner: an overview","volume":"41","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1038\/s44271-026-00402-1","article-title":"Against frictionless AI","volume":"4","author":"Zohar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Commun. Psychol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1957447\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T06:01:01Z","timestamp":1790748061000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1957447\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"references-count":64,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1957447"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2026.1957447","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-1078"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-1078","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"article-number":"1957447"}}