{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T00:37:18Z","timestamp":1792283838115,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]],"date-time":"2022-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666915200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There are more than 200 opioid overdose deaths each day in the US. In combating this epidemic we look to available treatment tools. Here, we find only three medications approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of opioid use disorder. Of the three, buprenorphine is of particular importance due to its reduced overdose potential as a partial opioid agonist. Evidence supports its clinical equivalence to its full agonist cousin methadone, and suggests that it is better slated for long-term treatment of opioid use disorder compared to the non-selective opioid antagonist naltrexone. Buprenorphine is most popularized within Suboxone, a medication which also contains the non-selective opioid antagonist naloxone. The naloxone has no additional effect when the drug is taken as instructed, as it is intended to prevent diversion in those that would attempt to inject the medication. While Suboxone is regarded by some as the future of medical treatment, others have expressed concerns. This review aims to explore the history, controversy, and open questions that surround buprenorphine and its most prescribed variation, Suboxone. These include its pharmacological, legislative, and social history, alternative indications, efficacy as a treatment of opioid use disorder, and more. Armed with this information, the reader will have a more in-depth and holistic understanding of the medication\u2019s place in their community.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.1046648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]],"date-time":"2022-10-28T05:58:25Z","timestamp":1666936705000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Suboxone: History, controversy, and open questions"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Andy","family":"Sivils","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paige","family":"Lyell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John Q.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiang-Ping","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","year":"2022","journal-title":"U.S. overdose deaths in 2021 increased half as much as in 2020 \u2013 but are still up 15%."},{"key":"B2","year":"2022","journal-title":"Understanding the epidemic drug overdose CDC injury center."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7006a4","article-title":"Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths \u2014 United States, 2013\u20132019.","volume":"70","author":"Mattson","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"key":"B4","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opioid data analysis and resources CDC\u2019s response to the opioid overdose epidemic CDC."},{"key":"B5","year":"2022","journal-title":"Timeline of selected FDA activities and significant events addressing opioid misuse and abuse."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bs6030018","article-title":"The classification of substance use disorders: Historical, contextual, and conceptual considerations.","volume":"6","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav Sci Basel Switz."},{"key":"B7","author":"Hedegaard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Products \u2013 data briefs \u2013 number 394 \u2013 december 2020."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm655051e1","article-title":"Increases in drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths \u2014 United States, 2010\u20132015.","volume":"65","author":"Rudd","year":"2016","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"key":"B9","year":"2022","journal-title":"Overdose death rates."},{"key":"B10","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opiates and related drugs reported in NFLIS, 2009-2014."},{"key":"B11","year":"2022","journal-title":"Death rate maps &amp; graphs drug overdose CDC injury center."},{"key":"B12","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fentanyl Facts."},{"key":"B13","author":"Kochanek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Products \u2013 health E Stats \u2013 changes in life expectancy at birth, 2010\u20132018."},{"key":"B14","first-page":"23","article-title":"Suboxone: Rationale, science, misconceptions.","volume":"18","author":"Velander","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ochsner J."},{"key":"B15","first-page":"200","article-title":"Primary care management of opioid use disorders: Abstinence, methadone, or buprenorphine-naloxone?","volume":"63","author":"Srivastava","year":"2017","journal-title":"Can Fam Physician."},{"key":"B16","year":"2022","journal-title":"National institute on drug. 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