{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T04:03:53Z","timestamp":1771819433091,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]],"date-time":"2022-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657843200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>To assess the trajectory of symptoms and symptom-defined post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from 1.5 to 12 months after hospitalization for COVID-19 and determine risk factors for persistent symptoms and PTSD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This was a prospective cohort study of consecutive patients discharged after hospitalization for COVID-19 before 1 June 2020 in six hospitals in Southern Norway. Symptom-defined PTSD was assessed by the post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) at 1.5, 3 and\/or 12 months after hospitalization, using DSM-5 criteria. Changes in PCL-5 symptom score and the prevalence of PTSD were analyzed with multivariable mixed models.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>In total, 388 patients were discharged alive, and 251 (65%) participated. Respondents had a mean (SD) age of 58.4 (14.2) years, and 142 (57%) were males. The prevalence of symptom-defined PTSD was 14, 8, and 9% at 1.5, 3, and 12 months, respectively. WHO disease severity for COVID-19 was not associated with PCL-5 scores. Female sex, lower age and non-Norwegian origin were associated with higher PCL-5 scores. The odds ratio (OR) (95%CI) for PTSD was 0.32 (0.12 to 0.83, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.019) at 3 months and 0.38 (0.15 to 0.95, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.039) at 12 months compared to 1.5 months. There was no association between PTSD and WHO severity rating.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The level of PTSD symptoms decreased from 1.5 to 3 months after hospitalization, but did not decrease further to 12 months, and there was no association between PTSD symptoms and COVID-19 disease severity.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.931349","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]],"date-time":"2022-07-15T05:00:48Z","timestamp":1657861248000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The course and determinants of post-traumatic stress over 12 months after hospitalization for COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Knut","family":"Stavem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Trond","family":"Heir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Toril","family":"Dammen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eivind","family":"Br\u00f8nstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"T\u00f8ri Vigeland","family":"Lerum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael T.","family":"Durheim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kristine M. A.","family":"Lund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bernt B.","family":"Aarli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gunnar","family":"Einvik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000882","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in critical illness survivors: a meta analysis","volume":"43","author":"Parker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1108.041083","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress after SARS","volume":"11","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"jrm00063","DOI":"10.2340\/16501977-2694","article-title":"Long-term clinical outcomes in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreaks after hospitalization or ICU admission: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Ahmed","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Rehabil Med"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08726-1","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression of survivors 12 months after the outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome in South Korea","volume":"20","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2002032","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China","volume":"382","author":"Guan WJ Ni","year":"2020","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"m1985","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m1985","article-title":"Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO clinical characterization protocol: prospective observational cohort study","volume":"369","author":"Docherty","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"B7","unstructured":"COVID-19, influensa og andre luftveisinfeksjoner"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2021.0109","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in patients after severe COVID-19 infection","volume":"78","author":"Janiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.11.040","article-title":"Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among survivors of severe COVID-19 infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"299","author":"Nagarajan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Affect Disord."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-021-02998-9","article-title":"Factors associated with impaired quality of life three months after being diagnosed with COVID-19","volume":"3","author":"Rass","year":"2021","journal-title":"Qual Life Res"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-021-06731-7","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder among COVID-19 survivors at 3-month follow-up after hospital discharge","volume":"36","author":"Tarsitani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med."},{"key":"B12","first-page":"1525","article-title":"4-month clinical status of a cohort of patients after hospitalization for COVID-19","year":"2021"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.04364-2020","article-title":"The high mental health burden of \u201cLong COVID\u201d and its association with on-going physical and respiratory symptoms in all adults discharged from hospital","volume":"57","author":"Naidu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18042079","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for post-traumatic stress in hospitalized and non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients","volume":"18","author":"Einvik","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-021-00949-1","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of chronic fatigue syndrome and post-traumatic stress disorder after the outbreak of the COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Simani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neurovirol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22666","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01215-4","article-title":"Long-term sequelae are highly prevalent one year after hospitalization for severe COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Bellan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13641","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.20m13641","article-title":"Is COVID-19 associated with posttraumatic stress disorder?","volume":"82","author":"Horn","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Psychiatry"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2021.11.031","article-title":"1-year mental health outcomes in a cohort of COVID-19 survivors","volume":"145","author":"Mazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863698","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.863698","article-title":"Mental Health of COVID-19 Survivors at 6 and 12 Months post-diagnosis: a cohort study","volume":"13","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854788","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.854788","article-title":"15-Month health outcomes and the related risk factors of hospitalized COVID-19 patients from onset: a cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Med."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9681(87)90171-8","article-title":"A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and validation","volume":"40","author":"Charlson","year":"1987","journal-title":"J Chronic Dis."},{"key":"B22","unstructured":"Geneva, Switzerland: WHO2020"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22059","article-title":"The post-traumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): development and initial psychometric evaluation","volume":"28","author":"Blevins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Trauma Stress."},{"key":"B24","article-title":"Washington D.C.: National Center for PTSD, Veterans Administration","year":"2022"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.07.037","article-title":"Anxiety and depression in COVID-19 survivors: role of inflammatory and clinical predictors","volume":"89","author":"Mazza","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602244","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.602244","article-title":"Prevalence of mental health problems and its associated factors among recovered COVID-19 patients during the pandemic: a single-center study","volume":"12","author":"Khademi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0239570","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239570","article-title":"Residual clinical damage after COVID-19: a retrospective and prospective observational cohort study","volume":"15","author":"De Lorenzo","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONe."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.02.021","article-title":"Persistent psychopathology and neurocognitive impairment in COVID-19 survivors: effect of inflammatory biomarkers at three-month follow-up","volume":"94","author":"Mazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0255774","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255774","article-title":"Boxma-de Klerk B, Wils EJ. Psychological distress and health-related quality of life in patients after hospitalization during the COVID-19 pandemic: A single-center, observational study","volume":"16","author":"Vlake","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.23736\/S0031-0808.21.04399-8","article-title":"Physical and psychological sequelae at three months after acute illness in COVID-19 survivors","volume-title":"Panminerva Med.","author":"De Lorenzo","year":"2021"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01223-w","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress symptoms in COVID-19 survivors: a self-report and brain imaging follow-up study","volume-title":"Mol Psychiatry.","author":"Tu","year":"2021"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2021.100315","article-title":"Anxiety, depression, insomnia, and trauma-related symptoms following COVID-19 infection at long-term follow-up","volume":"16","author":"Kyzar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun Health."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.07.018","article-title":"Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19 - A systematic review","volume":"97","author":"Schou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2020.110236","article-title":"Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: a global cross-sectional survey","volume":"109","author":"Varma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2014.03.002","article-title":"Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of long term outcome studies","volume":"34","author":"Morina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.931349\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]],"date-time":"2022-07-15T05:00:54Z","timestamp":1657861254000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.931349\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"references-count":35,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.931349"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.931349","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,15]]},"article-number":"931349"}}