{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T02:21:53Z","timestamp":1781662913304,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]],"date-time":"2023-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008169","name":"Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008169","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an independent risk factor for tobacco use disorder. Individuals with ADHD are more likely to begin smoking at a younger age, become a daily smoker sooner, smoke more cigarettes per day, and exhibit greater nicotine dependence than individuals without ADHD. It is unclear whether these findings are due to the reinforcing efficacy of nicotine <jats:italic>per se<\/jats:italic> being greater among individuals with ADHD. The purpose of the present study was to examine this issue using an animal model of ADHD, the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) strain.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Adolescent SHR and Wistar (control) rats were given access to a typically reinforcing nicotine unit dose (30 \u03bcg\/kg), a threshold reinforcing nicotine dose (4 \u03bcg\/kg), or saline under an FR 1 (week 1) and FR 2 (week 2) schedule during 23 h sessions to examine acquisition of self-administration. Behavioral economic demand elasticity was then evaluated at the 30 \u03bcg\/kg dose through an FR escalation procedure.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>At the 30 \u03bcg\/kg dose, SHR rats exhibited a lower average response rate, lower mean active to inactive lever discrimination ratio, and lower proportion of rats acquiring self-administration compared to control rats. During demand assessment, SHR rats showed no significant difference from Wistars in demand intensity (Q<jats:sub>0<\/jats:sub>) or elasticity (\u03b1; i.e., reinforcing efficacy). In addition, no strain difference in acquisition measures were observed at the 4 \u03bcg\/kg dose.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings suggest that the increased risk of tobacco use disorder in adolescents with ADHD may not be attributable to a greater reinforcing efficacy of nicotine, and that other aspects of tobacco smoking (e.g., non-nicotine constituents, sensory factors) may play a more important role. A policy implication of these findings is that a nicotine standard to reduce initiation of tobacco use among adolescents in the general population may also be effective among those with ADHD.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1154773","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]],"date-time":"2023-05-15T04:43:57Z","timestamp":1684125837000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The relative reinforcing efficacy of nicotine in an adolescent rat model of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"John R.","family":"Smethells","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danielle","family":"Burroughs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy","family":"Saykao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark G.","family":"LeSage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021275","article-title":"Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among substance use disorder (SUD) populations: Meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Rohner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Pu"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.62.10.1142","article-title":"Association between smoking and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in a population-based sample of young adults","volume":"62","author":"Kollins","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0188-4409(99)00087-9","article-title":"Nicotine, brain nicotinic receptors, and neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"31","author":"Mihailescu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch Med Res"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843x.112.3.497","article-title":"Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD","volume":"112","author":"Molina","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Abnorm Psychol"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/0899-3289(95)90030-6","article-title":"Cigarette smoking in adult patients diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"7","author":"Pomerleau","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Subst Abus"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2020.11.010","article-title":"Association of Attention-Deficit\/hyperactivity disorder with E-cigarette use","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/136031","article-title":"Association between e-cigarette use and parents\u2019 report of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among US youth","volume":"19","author":"Kaplan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tob Induc Dis"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199701000-00015","article-title":"ADHD is associated with early initiation of cigarette smoking in children and adolescents","volume":"36","author":"Milberger","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1080\/14622200310001656948","article-title":"Psychiatric disorders, familial factors, and cigarette smoking: II. 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