{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T10:11:24Z","timestamp":1792318284907,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705449600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition, that continues to have an elusive etiological background. A number of extant models and theories have historically intended to explain the many factors contributing to ADHD behaviors. One of the most accepted hypotheses has been the executive dysfunction theory associating reduction in executive control to abnormalities in structure and operational dysfunction of dopaminergic signaling networks. Nevertheless, executive functions are not always impaired in ADHD, and the literature describes other symptoms commonly reported suggesting individuals with ADHD would appear to suffer from a more general deficit. Another existing line of research, that has gained much attention recently, establishes that ADHD would have dysregulated states of brain arousal that would account for its commonly observed cognitive deficits and behavioral symptoms, described as the state regulation theory, which has now included measures of autonomic function. This article describes some important aspects that compose and challenge these two most influential theoretical constructs, executive dysfunction and state-regulation, based on their empirical evidence, implying the need to reevaluate the norms used to classify individuals and establish ADHD diagnosis. Large number of controversial results continue to exist within the study of ADHD biological and\/or performance markers, possibly due to such heterogeneity and variability within the same diagnosis. The need to resolve these issues and establish newly revised diagnostic criteria for ADHD is critical, as therapeutic success depends on having accurately identified underlying neurophysiological factors in order to appropriately address them in treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1336040","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T04:36:07Z","timestamp":1705466167000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Arousal dysregulation and executive dysfunction in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Valeria","family":"Isaac","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vladimir","family":"Lopez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Josefina","family":"Escobar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.121.1.65","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD","volume":"121","author":"Barkley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.18863\/pgy.424793","article-title":"Executive function problems and treatment in children and adolescents with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder","volume":"11","author":"Savc\u0131","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2007.164.6.942","article-title":"The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis","volume":"164","author":"Polanczyk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref5","first-page":"151","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): from hyperkinetic to neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"39","author":"Pehlivanidis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Archives of Hellenic Med"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1701658","article-title":"ADHD: current concepts and treatments in children and adolescents","volume":"51","author":"Drechsler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00183","article-title":"Irrelevant stimulus processing in ADHD: catecholamine dynamics and attentional networks","volume":"5","author":"Aboitiz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-8106-5_7","article-title":"Executive functioning theory and ADHD","volume-title":"Handbook of executive functioning","author":"Antshel","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2019.18091033","article-title":"Brain imaging of the cortex in ADHD: a coordinated analysis of large-scale clinical and population-based samples","volume":"176","author":"Hoogman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.01.027","article-title":"Catecholamine influences on dorsolateral prefrontal cortical networks","volume":"69","author":"Arnsten","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-5-15","article-title":"What would Karl popper say? Are current psychological theories of ADHD falsifiable?","volume":"5","author":"Johnson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav Brain Funct"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s41252-020-00159-6","article-title":"Is the motor impairment in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a co-occurring deficit or a phenotypic characteristic?","volume":"4","author":"Farran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Advan Neurodevelop Disor"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1177\/0031512517690607","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and motor impairment: a critical review","volume":"124","author":"Goulardins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Percept Mot Skills"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2008.08.016","article-title":"Postural and gait performance in children with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"29","author":"Buderath","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.3390\/neurolint15030050","article-title":"Motor capabilities in children with ADHD are improved after brief visuopostural training","volume":"15","author":"Caldani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurol Int"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2006.01.011","article-title":"Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction","volume":"10","author":"Castellanos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn896","article-title":"Neuroscience of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes","volume":"3","author":"Castellanos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)33004-1","article-title":"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"395","author":"Posner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(83)90016-1","article-title":"Towards a model of stress and human performance","volume":"53","author":"Sanders","year":"1983","journal-title":"Acta Psychol (Amst)"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(99)00060-3","article-title":"The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"24","author":"Sergeant","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s12868-019-0526-4","article-title":"Brain arousal regulation and depressive symptomatology in adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)","volume":"20","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Neurosci"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.09.011","article-title":"Orienting and reorienting: the locus coeruleus mediates cognition through arousal","volume":"76","author":"Sara","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(12)62272-1","article-title":"The central autonomic network: functional organization, dysfunction, and perspective","volume":"68","author":"Benarroch","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2022.102948","article-title":"Cognition, emotion, and the central autonomic network","volume":"238","author":"Quadt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autonomic Neurosci: Basic and Clinical"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-62263-3_2","article-title":"Central autonomic network","volume-title":"Autonomic nervous system and sleep","author":"Shouman","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref26","first-page":"39","article-title":"Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: allostasis, biological embedding, and cumulative change","volume-title":"Stress: Concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior: Handbook of stress","author":"McEwen","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.920180503","article-title":"The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation","volume":"18","author":"Yerkes","year":"1908","journal-title":"J Comparative Neurorol Psychol"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1159\/000439384","article-title":"Assessment of wakefulness and brain arousal regulation in psychiatric research","volume":"72","author":"Sander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2019.11.001","article-title":"Is autonomic nervous system function atypical in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? A systematic review of the evidence","volume":"108","author":"Bellato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-0511(99)00040-X","article-title":"Motor control and state regulation in children with ADHD: a cardiac response study","volume":"51","author":"B\u00f6rger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022610306984","article-title":"Heart rate variability and sustained attention in ADHD children","volume":"27","author":"B\u00f6rger","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.12.043","article-title":"Brain arousal regulation in adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)","volume":"261","author":"Strau\u00df","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn755","article-title":"Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain","volume":"3","author":"Corbetta","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.01.008","article-title":"Neuromodulation of attention","volume":"97","author":"Thiele","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s004269900007","article-title":"Executive functions and the frontal lobes: a conceptual view","volume":"63","author":"Stuss","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol Res"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.18.3.543","article-title":"Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"18","author":"Frazier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.02.006","article-title":"Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit\/ hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review","volume":"57","author":"Willcutt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390701754720","article-title":"Working memory in school-aged children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder combined type: are deficits modality specific and are they independent of impaired inhibitory control?","volume":"30","author":"Brocki","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Exp Neuropsychol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1177\/088307389701200207","article-title":"Right hemisphere dysfunction in subjects with attention-deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity","volume":"12","author":"Garcia-Sanchez","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acx055","article-title":"The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a review of meta-analyses","volume":"33","author":"Pievsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200105000-00012","article-title":"Psychiatric, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning of female adolescents with ADHD","volume":"40","author":"Rucklidge","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00163","article-title":"Postural instability in children with ADHD is improved by methylphenidate","volume":"10","author":"Bucci","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2009.02.032","article-title":"Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder have impaired balance function: involvement of somatosensory, visual, and vestibular systems","volume":"155","author":"Shum","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00090","article-title":"Altered cervical vestibular-evoked myogenic potential in children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder","volume":"8","author":"Isaac","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1168666","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2023.1168666","article-title":"Neurocognitive and cerebellar function in ADHD, autism and spinocerebellar ataxia","volume":"17","author":"Cundari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Syst Neurosci"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S125169","article-title":"Dynamic balance in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its relationship with cognitive functions and cerebellum","volume":"13","author":"Goetz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.288.14.1740","article-title":"Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"288","author":"Castellanos","year":"2002","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-023-02309-5","article-title":"Multiple measurement analysis of resting-state fMRI for ADHD classification in adolescent brain from the ABCD study. Translational","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000669","article-title":"Neuroimaging in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"34","author":"Pereira-Sanchez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1110883","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1110883","article-title":"Reduced neurite density index in the prefrontal cortex of adults with autism assessed using neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging","volume":"14","author":"Arai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2017.17010100","article-title":"Cortical and subcortical brain morphometry differences between patients with autism spectrum disorder and healthy individuals across the lifespan: results from the ENIGMA ASD working group","volume":"175","author":"Van Rooij","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S4101","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: focus on methylphenidate hydrochloride","volume":"5","author":"Nair","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.4137\/CMT.S6615","article-title":"Effectiveness and tolerability of methylphenidate in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"3","author":"Bodey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clinical Med Insights: Therapeutics"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.4103\/2279-042X.145389","article-title":"Adverse reactions of methylphenidate in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: report from a referral center. Journal of research","volume":"3","author":"Khalili","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharm Pract"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-286","article-title":"Methylphenidate off-label use and safety","volume":"3","author":"Trenque","year":"2014","journal-title":"Springerplus"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702615618664","article-title":"A network analysis of developmental change in ADHD symptom structure from preschool to adulthood","volume":"4","author":"Martel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Sci"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707741104","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation","volume":"104","author":"Shaw","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.01.031","article-title":"Development of cortical surface area and gyrification in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"72","author":"Shaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bps.2004.09.010","article-title":"Modeling attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a critical appraisal of the cognitive\/energetic model","volume":"57","author":"Sergeant","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue","volume":"18","author":"Segerstrom","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325","article-title":"The attention system of the human brain","volume":"13","author":"Posner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref63","first-page":"139","article-title":"Restoring attention networks","volume":"92","author":"Posner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Yale J Biol Med"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(99)00046-9","article-title":"Pathologies of brain attentional networks","volume":"24","author":"Berger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2007.10.013","article-title":"Noradrenergic modulation of arousal","volume":"58","author":"Berridge","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Res Rev"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.20723","article-title":"Adaptive gain and the role of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system in optimal performance","volume":"493","author":"Aston-Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Comp Neurol"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2201\/nonlin.003.01.001","article-title":"Cognitive, endocrine and mechanistic perspectives on non-linear relationships between arousal and brain function","volume":"3","author":"Diamond","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nonlinearity in Biol, Toxicol, Med"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4372","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0398-19.2020","article-title":"Noradrenergic responsiveness supports selective attention across the adult lifespan","volume":"40","author":"Dahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13079","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13079","article-title":"Parasympathetic and sympathetic activity are associated with individual differences in neural indices of selective attention in adults","volume":"55","author":"Giuliano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-8760(94)90042-6","article-title":"Metabolic and cardiorespiratory measures of mental effort: the effects of level of difficulty in a working memory task","volume":"16","author":"Backs","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709","article-title":"An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance","volume":"28","author":"Aston-Jones","year":"2005","journal-title":"Annu Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2011.01.020","article-title":"Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical function: relevance to treatment of attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and related disorders","volume":"99","author":"Arnsten","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6182","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5093-13.2014","article-title":"Optogenetic stimulation of locus ceruleus neurons augments inhibitory transmission to parasympathetic cardiac vagal neurons via activation of brainstem \u03b11 and \u03b21 receptors","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2015.08.006","article-title":"Tonic and phasic co-variation of peripheral arousal indices in infants","volume":"111","author":"Wass","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"ref75","first-page":"974","article-title":"Correlations between locus coeruleus (LC) neural activity, pupil diameter and behavior in monkey support a role of LC in attention","volume":"19","author":"Rajkowski","year":"1993","journal-title":"Soc Neuroscie Abstracts"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13289","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13289","article-title":"Pupil fluctuations track rapid changes in adrenergic and cholinergic activity in cortex","volume":"7","author":"Reimer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S49071","article-title":"Analysis of cardiac autonomic modulation of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"10","author":"de Carvalho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2017.01.004","article-title":"Sustained attention and heart rate variability in children and adolescents with ADHD","volume":"124","author":"Griffiths","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s12576-012-0238-3","article-title":"Inattentive and hyperactive preschool-age boys have lower sympathetic and higher parasympathetic activity","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Physiol Sci"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.04.027","article-title":"Electroencephalogram \u03b8\/\u03b2 ratio and arousal in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: evidence of independent processes","volume":"66","author":"Barry","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2013.04.009","article-title":"Excess beta activity in the EEG of children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a disorder of arousal?","volume":"89","author":"Clarke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2013.09.007","article-title":"EEG and electrodermal activity in girls with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"125","author":"Dupuy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123134","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(99)00068-9","article-title":"Simultaneous EEG and EDA measures in adolescent attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"34","author":"Lazzaro","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-005-0144-y","article-title":"Methylphenidate effects in attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: electrodermal and ERP measures during a continuous performance task","volume":"183","author":"Lawrence","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology (Berl)"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsc.2016.06.003","article-title":"Modifiable arousal in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and its etiological association with fluctuating reaction times","volume":"1","author":"James","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimag"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8228","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08246-w","article-title":"Pupil size tracks attentional performance in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"7","author":"Wainstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.3308","article-title":"Moderating effects of impulsivity and morning cortisol on the genotype-phenotype relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in young adults","volume":"1","author":"Garz\u00f3n Rodr\u00edguez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"key":"ref88","first-page":"7","article-title":"Fundamentals of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: circuits and pathways","volume":"67","author":"Arnsten","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Clin Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"780921","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780921","article-title":"The mechanism, clinical efficacy, safety, and dosage regimen of atomoxetine for ADHD therapy in children: a narrative review","volume":"12","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.2147\/ndt.s3896","article-title":"Atomoxetine for the treatment of attention-defi cit\/ hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a review","volume":"5","author":"Hammerness","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-8606.2011.00196.x","article-title":"Effortful control, executive functions, and education: bringing self-regulatory and social-emotional competencies to the table","volume":"6","author":"Liew","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Dev Perspect"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12675","article-title":"Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology","volume":"58","author":"Nigg","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691612460685","article-title":"Dual-process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate","volume":"8","author":"Evans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2019.03.039","article-title":"Autonomic arousal profiles in adolescents and young adults with ADHD as a function of recording context","volume":"275","author":"Du Rietz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.08.023","article-title":"A meta-analytic study of event rate effects on go\/no-go performance in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"72","author":"Metin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2005.01592.x","article-title":"Event rate and event-related potentials in ADHD","volume":"47","author":"Wiersema","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.09.029","article-title":"Effects of motivation and medication on electrophysiological markers of response inhibition in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"67","author":"Groom","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2006.163.4.716","article-title":"The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication","volume":"163","author":"Kessler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143150","article-title":"Current issues in the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder","volume":"8","author":"Frick","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu Rev Clin Psychol"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1080\/13651501.2019.1628277","article-title":"Comorbidity between ADHD and anxiety disorders across the lifespan","volume":"23","author":"D\u2019Agati","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949375","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.949375","article-title":"Differentiation and comorbidity of bipolar disorder and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a clinical and nosological perspective","volume":"13","author":"Fornaro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-020-1141-x","article-title":"Genetics of ADHD: what should the clinician know?","volume":"22","author":"Grimm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1177\/10870547221136251","article-title":"The heritability of ADHD in children of ADHD parents: a post-hoc analysis of longitudinal data","volume":"27","author":"Uchida","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.08.025","article-title":"Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes?","volume":"57","author":"Nigg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.10.008","article-title":"The vigilance regulation model of affective disorders and ADHD","volume":"44","author":"Hegerl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1336040\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]],"date-time":"2024-01-17T04:36:13Z","timestamp":1705466173000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1336040\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1336040"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1336040","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,17]]},"article-number":"1336040"}}