{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T20:41:28Z","timestamp":1781642488696,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Emerging adulthood is considered a peak age for the onset of mental health difficulties with approximately 75% of mental health disorders being diagnosed during this developmental period. Companion animals confer both risk and benefits to mental health yet the potential underpinning mechanisms which explain such impacts are not fully understood. This study aimed to gather an in-depth understanding of young adults\u2019 lived experience of how their companion dogs and cats may impact their mental health symptoms and the perceived mechanisms which explain their effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 16 young adults aged 18-26 years, from the United Kingdom, who either had a companion dog, cat, or both. All participants had difficulties with anxiety and or depression, and 12 had received a formal diagnosis of an affective disorder. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Five overarching themes and one subtheme were identified through reflexive thematic analysis using an inductive approach: Theme 1: Pet impact on generalized anxiety and panic, Subtheme 1A: Pet impact on social anxiety and loneliness; Theme 2: Pet impact on low mood, depression, and stress; Theme 3: Pet impact on severe mental health and suicide prevention; Theme 4: Staying well; Theme 5: Positive outlook and successful futures. Several perceived mechanisms underpinning the impacts of pets for mental health were also identified. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings have relevance for the development and evaluation of mental health interventions and treatment protocols aimed at young adults with mental health difficulties, where companion animals may prove to be effective for symptom management and improvements in positive wellbeing.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1355317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T04:50:12Z","timestamp":1707972612000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Young adults\u2019 views on the mechanisms underpinning the impact of pets on symptoms of anxiety and depression"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Roxanne D.","family":"Hawkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chih-Hsin","family":"Kuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlotte","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"No health without mental health: A cross Government mental health outcomes strategy for people of all ages2011"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d2868","article-title":"Identification and care pathways for common mental health disorders: summary of NICE guidance","volume":"342","author":"Pilling","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bmj"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(14)00080-7","article-title":"The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18\u201329 years: Implications for mental health","volume":"1","author":"Arnett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(23)00193-1","article-title":"Age of onset and cumulative risk of mental disorders: a cross-national analysis of population surveys from 29 countries","volume":"10","author":"McGrath","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcad.12153","article-title":"The impact of life transition on emerging adult attachment, social support, and well-being: A multiple-group comparison","volume":"95","author":"Lane","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Couns Dev"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022320","article-title":"Developmental relations between perceived social support and depressive symptoms through emerging adulthood: blood is thicker than water","volume":"25","author":"Pettit","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Family Psychol"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-019-0975-0","article-title":"Prevention science in emerging adulthood: A field coming of age","volume":"20","author":"Schwartz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prev Sci"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.1359","article-title":"Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States","volume":"21","author":"Kessler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Methods Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"s5","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.112.119164","article-title":"Adult mental health disorders and their age at onset","volume":"202","author":"Jones","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-016-2227-8","article-title":"Help-seeking in emerging adults with and without a history of mental health referral: a qualitative study","volume":"9","author":"Spence","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0265542","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265542","article-title":"\u2018You\u2019re on the waiting list\u2019: An interpretive phenomenological analysis of young adults\u2019 experiences of waiting lists within mental health services in the UK","volume":"17","author":"Punton","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B12","unstructured":"Leading causes of death, UK: 2001 to 20182021"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1078390321999719","article-title":"Using pet therapy to decrease patients\u2019 anxiety on two diverse inpatient units","volume":"29","author":"Mulvaney-Roth","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc"},{"key":"B14","unstructured":"Pets and Mental Health2022"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gnx150","article-title":"Critical review of research methods used to consider the impact of human\u2013animal interaction on older adults\u2019 health","volume":"59","author":"Friedmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gerontol"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07317115.2019.1650863","article-title":"Companion animals and health in older populations: A systematic review","volume":"43","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Gerontol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.619600","article-title":"Variability in human-animal interaction research","volume":"7","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.11.070","article-title":"Relationship between pet ownership and risk of high depressive symptoms in adolescence and young adulthood","volume":"323","author":"\u017bebrowska","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1196199","article-title":"Pet\u2019s influence on humans\u2019 daily physical activity and mental health: a meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Martins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2021.1914434","article-title":"\u201cI can\u2019t give up when I have them to care for\u201d: People\u2019s experiences of pets and their mental health","volume":"34","author":"Hawkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1177\/1363460720986908","article-title":"\u201cCompanion, friend, four-legged fluff ball\u201d: The power of pets in the lives of LGBTQ+ young people experiencing homelessness","volume":"25","author":"Schmitz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sexualities"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1079\/hai.2021.0015","article-title":"Testing the moderating role of victimization and microaggressions on the relationship between human-animal interaction and psychological adjustment among LGBTQ+ emerging adults","volume":"11","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human-Animal Interaction Bull"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/21676968211025340","article-title":"\u201cHe was like, my ride or die\u201d: Sexual and gender minority emerging adults\u2019 perspectives on living with pets during the transition to adulthood","volume":"10","author":"McDonald","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg Adulthood"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15487733.2022.2030115","article-title":"Balancing needs: young unemployed Finnish adults\u2019 discourse on well-being and its relation to the sustainability transformation","volume":"18","author":"Helne","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain: Sci Pract Policy"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/156853008X323411","article-title":"Reasons for companion animal guardianship (pet ownership) from two populations","volume":"16","author":"Staats","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc Anim"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/15685306-12341522","article-title":"Companion animals in childhood and emerging adulthood: The relation to emerging adult development","volume":"27","author":"Siebenbruner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc Anim"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.29173\/cjfy29454","article-title":"Are millennials really picking pets over people? Taking a closer look at dog ownership in emerging adulthood","volume":"11","author":"Graham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can J Family Youth"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2013.06.014","article-title":"The relationship between worry, rumination, and comorbidity: Evidence for repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic construct","volume":"151","author":"McEvoy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-018-1613-2","article-title":"The power of support from companion animals for people living with mental health problems: A systematic review and narrative synthesis of the evidence","volume":"18","author":"Brooks","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/1525822X05279903","article-title":"How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability","volume":"18","author":"Guest","year":"2006","journal-title":"Field Methods"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1002\/capr.12360","article-title":"Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern-based qualitative analytic approaches","volume":"21","author":"Braun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Counselling Psychother Res"},{"key":"B32","article-title":"Thematic Analysis. Qualitative Research\u2013a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners","volume-title":"Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Health and Social Care Researchers and Practitioners","author":"Ayton","year":"2023"},{"key":"B33","volume-title":"Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners","author":"Braun","year":"2013"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721411415220","article-title":"The impact of pets on human health and psychological well-being: fact, fiction, or hypothesis","volume":"20","author":"Herzog","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr Dir psychol Sci"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2012.00234","article-title":"Psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of human-animal interactions: the possible role of oxytocin","volume":"3","author":"Beetz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.630465","article-title":"Dogs supporting human health and well-being: A biopsychosocial approach","volume":"8","author":"Gee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.2812","article-title":"The effect of pet therapy on the physiological and subjective stress response: A meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Ein","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1079\/hai.2023.0034","article-title":"The benefits and risks of child-dog attachment and child-dog behaviours for child psychological well-being","volume":"11","author":"Hawkins","year":"2023","journal-title":"Human-Animal Interact"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3390\/bs12050143","article-title":"From regulating emotions to less lonely screen time: Parents\u2019 qualitative perspectives of the benefits and challenges of adolescent pet companionship","volume":"12","author":"Charmaraman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav Sci"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/2237-6089-2016-0051","article-title":"Mindfulness in mood and anxiety disorders: a review of the literature","volume":"39","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Psychiatry Psychother"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103573","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2020.103573","article-title":"Reflecting on rumination: Consequences, causes, mechanisms, and treatment of rumination","volume":"127","author":"Watkins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/sjop.12884","article-title":"An empirical test of the metacognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder","volume":"64","author":"Nordahl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scand J Psychol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2020.1719759","article-title":"A qualitative analysis of pets as suicide protection for older people","volume":"33","author":"Young","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23655","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-02504-8","article-title":"Understanding the impact of dog ownership on autistic adults: Implications for mental health and suicide prevention","volume":"11","author":"Barcelos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.104153","article-title":"Role of pets and animal assisted therapy in suicide prevention","volume":"80","author":"Shoib","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann Med Surg"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10888705.2021.1934839","article-title":"A literature review: Pet bereavement and coping mechanisms","volume":"26","author":"Park","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Appl Anim Welfare Sci"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2005.01.017","article-title":"The pet connection: Pets as a conduit for social capital","volume":"61","author":"Wood","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/18387357.2018.1485508","article-title":"\u2018Pets provide meaning and purpose\u2019: a qualitative study of pet ownership from the perspectives of people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder","volume":"16","author":"Hayden-Evans","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv Ment Health"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-022-02332-9","article-title":"Pet ownership, loneliness, and social isolation: a systematic review","volume":"57","author":"Kretzler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2018.1455467","article-title":"Self-disclosure with dogs: Dog owners\u2019 and non-dog owners\u2019 willingness to disclose emotional topics","volume":"31","author":"Evans-Wilday","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.622060","article-title":"The value of companion dogs as a source of social support for their owners: Findings from a pre-pandemic representative sample and a convenience sample obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown in Spain","volume":"12","author":"Bowen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0274353","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0274353","article-title":"Exploring behaviours perceived as important for human\u2014Dog bonding and their translation to a robotic platform","volume":"17","author":"Riddoch","year":"2022","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14030441","article-title":"The link between the nature of the human\u2013companion animal relationship and well-being outcomes in companion animal owners","volume":"14","author":"Ellis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020330","article-title":"\u201cI couldn\u2019t have asked for a better quarantine partner!\u201d: Experiences with companion dogs during Covid-19","volume":"11","author":"Bussolari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342837","DOI":"10.1093\/ecam\/nep106","article-title":"The use of humor in serious mental illness: A review","volume":"2011","author":"Gelkopf","year":"2011","journal-title":"Evidence-Based Complement Altern Med"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12382","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182312382","article-title":"Theoretical foundations to the impact of dog-related activities on human hedonic well-being, life satisfaction and eudaimonic well-being","volume":"18","author":"Barcelos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpnec.2021.100071","article-title":"Love, fear, and the human-animal bond: On adversity and multispecies relationships","volume":"7","author":"Applebaum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Compr Psychoneuroendocrinol"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.652610","article-title":"The impact of pets on everyday life for older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"9","author":"Applebaum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2022.2051931","article-title":"Companionship and worries in uncertain times: Australian parents\u2019 experiences of children and pets during COVID-19","volume":"35","author":"Bennetts","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-41254-6","article-title":"Dog owners are more likely to meet physical activity guidelines than people without a dog: An investigation of the association between dog ownership and physical activity levels in a UK community","volume":"9","author":"Westgarth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.903647","article-title":"Dogs and the good life: a cross-sectional study of the association between the dog\u2013owner relationship and owner mental wellbeing","volume":"13","author":"Merkouri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14030234","article-title":"Companion animals and child\/adolescent development: A systematic review of the evidence","volume":"14","author":"Purewal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7610510197p1","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.2022.76S1-PO197","article-title":"The role of pets in the lives of autistic adults","volume":"76","author":"Lenz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Occup Ther"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-022-05622-y","article-title":"\u2018They ask no questions and pass no criticism\u2019: A mixed-methods study exploring pet ownership in autism","volume":"53","author":"Atherton","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01678","article-title":"Emotional contagion from humans to dogs is facilitated by duration of ownership","volume":"10","author":"Katayama","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3263","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11113263","article-title":"Anthropomorphism and its adverse effects on the distress and welfare of companion animals","volume":"11","author":"Mota-Rojas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1079\/hai.2021.000","article-title":"Cat-human related activities associated with human well-being","volume":"11","author":"Ravenscroft","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human-Animal Interaction Bull"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16101729","article-title":"Companion animal ownership and human well-being in a metropolis \u2013 The case of Hong Kong","volume":"16","author":"Wong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.3390\/ani9090674","article-title":"Compatibility between humans and their dogs: Benefits for both","volume":"9","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Ram\u00edrez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2023.2182029","article-title":"Social support and wellbeing in cat and dog owners, and the moderating influence of pet\u2013owner relationship quality","volume":"36","author":"Hardie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/hai.2023.000","article-title":"Potential psychosocial explanations for the impact of pet ownership on human well-being: evaluating and expanding current hypotheses","volume":"2023","author":"Barcelos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Human-Animal Interact"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1355317\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T04:50:21Z","timestamp":1707972621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1355317\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]},"references-count":71,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1355317"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1355317","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]]},"article-number":"1355317"}}