{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T07:50:13Z","timestamp":1781077813040,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder with a high and increasing global prevalence. Although the precise causes are unknown, both genetic and environmental factors, including maternal ones during pregnancy, significantly influence its development. Therefore, this study endeavors to explore the potential causes of autism, including maternal and paternal prenatal risk factors, as well as antenatal and natal maternal risk factors, and their associations with the severity of ASD in mothers of children with ASD, from February to May 2024.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>At an autism center in Saudi Arabia, this cross-sectional study enrolled 168 mothers of children diagnosed with ASD. The web-based survey employs a structured questionnaire to gather comprehensive prenatal, natal, and demographic data. The collected data was coded and analyzed using suitable tests.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The majority of the surveyed 168 mothers with autistic children reported having autism spectrum disorder (43.8%), moderate autism (31.9%), mild autism (15.6%), and severe autism (8.8%). Most autistic children had a history of one or both maternal and\/or paternal antenatal exposures: 79.2% had soft drink consumption, 35.1% smoked, 24.4% had chronic physical diseases, and 20.8% had psychological disease. <jats:italic>Regarding maternal antenatal conditions<\/jats:italic>, 37% had a history of recurrent infection, 29.2% had anemia, 15.5% had a history of threatened abortion or bleeding, as well as exposure to air pollution, and 22 (13.1%) had a history of gestational diabetes. Significant (<jats:italic>p &amp;lt;<\/jats:italic>0.05) predictors of severe autism were gestational diabetes aOR 4.553 (95% CI: [1.518, 14.25], birth oxygen desaturation 4.142 (95% CI: [1.437, 12.45]. Furthermore, the likelihood of classifying a child\u2019s ASD as severe increases by 7.1% with each year of age1.071 (95% CI: [1.002, 1.15].<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>ASD is a prevalent health condition that has many interrelationships with prenatal, maternal (medical, environmental, and psychosocial factors), and natal conditions. Prospective studies are essential for understanding and addressing these ASD risk factors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1467821","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T06:29:24Z","timestamp":1734676164000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Unveiling the influences of prenatal and maternal factors on the journey of an autistic child"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Abdelkader","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faten","family":"AlRadini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashwaq","family":"Alosaimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdallah","family":"Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zaki","family":"Judeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tahneed","family":"Emy Abu Esaid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alaa","family":"Saleh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaffer","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samar","family":"Amer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02632-6","article-title":"Maternal factors during pregnancy influencing maternal, fetal, and childhood outcomes","volume":"20","author":"Muglia","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2402","article-title":"Maternal dietary factors and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review of existing evidence","volume":"13","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Research"},{"key":"B3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) data & statistics\n          \n          \n          2016"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-3447","article-title":"Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder","volume":"145","author":"Hyman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.2868","article-title":"Association of grandparental and parental age at childbirth with autism spectrum disorder in children","volume":"3","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA network Open"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2015.183","article-title":"Maternal polycystic ovary syndrome and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a population-based nationwide study in Sweden","volume":"21","author":"Kosidou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.16205","article-title":"The role of androgen and its related signals in PCOS","volume":"25","author":"Ye","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Cell Mol Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2015.3356","article-title":"Antidepressant use during pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in children","volume":"170","author":"Boukhris","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dci22-0055","article-title":"Diabetes in pregnancy for mothers and offspring: reflection on 30 years of clinical and translational research: the 2022 Norbert Freinkel award lecture","volume":"46","author":"Xiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.7614","article-title":"Maternal type 1 diabetes and risk of autism in offspring","volume":"320","author":"Xiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613211007319","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to paternal smoking and likelihood for autism spectrum disorder","volume":"25","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autism: Int J Res Pract"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15153395","article-title":"Nutrition and supplements during pregnancy: A vital component in building the health and well-being of both the mother and the developing baby","volume":"15","author":"Qin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B13","unstructured":"Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-012-0119-6","article-title":"Parent and family impact of autism spectrum disorders: a review and proposed model for intervention evaluation","volume":"15","author":"Karst","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clinical child and family psychology review"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11030309","article-title":"Mothers\u2019 Experiences and challenges raising a child with autism spectrum disorder: A qualitative study","volume":"11","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain sciences"},{"key":"B16","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","year":"2013"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/children9091269","article-title":"Saudi expert consensus-based autism spectrum disorder statement: from screening to management","volume":"9","author":"Alenezi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Children (Basel)"},{"key":"B18","first-page":"1136","article-title":"Rethinking autism: the impact of maternal risk factors on autism development","volume":"14","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"American journal of translational research"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyt282","article-title":"Maternal lifestyle and environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorders","volume":"43","author":"Lyall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"B20","unstructured":"Daily Stress and Hassles\n          \n          \n            \n              Wright\n              AGC\n            \n          \n          Oxford Library of Psychology\n          The Oxford Handbook of Stress and Mental Health\n          \n          2020"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/7605876","article-title":"Is earlier better? The relationship between age when starting early intervention and outcomes for children with autism spectrum disorder: A selective review","volume":"2020","author":"Towle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Res Treat"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-014-2287-3","article-title":"Using standardized diagnostic instruments to classify children with autism in the study to explore early development","volume":"45","author":"Wiggins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/27546330241226811","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder diagnosis across cultures: Are diagnoses equivalent","volume":"2","author":"Tafla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurodiversity"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2015.70","article-title":"Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents","volume":"21","author":"Sandin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073789","article-title":"Chronic low grade inflammation in pathogenesis of PCOS","volume":"22","author":"Rudnicka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15173772","article-title":"Daily early-life exposures to diet soda and aspartame are associated with autism in males: A case-control study","volume":"15","author":"Fowler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2004.02.017","article-title":"Chronic aspartame affects T-maze performance, brain cholinergic receptors and Na+, K+-ATPase in rats","volume":"78","author":"Christian","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.07.016","article-title":"Personalized microbiome-driven effects of non-nutritive sweeteners on human glucose tolerance","volume":"185","author":"Suez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-019-02161-8","article-title":"The impact of food additives, artificial sweeteners and domestic hygiene products on the human gut microbiome and its fibre fermentation capacity","volume":"59","author":"Gerasimidis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Nutr"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14132729","article-title":"Maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and child autism-related traits: results from two US cohorts","volume":"14","author":"Vecchione","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.v13.10","article-title":"Maternal dietary factors and the risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review of existing evidence","volume":"13","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Res"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-2016-3\\","article-title":"Maternal infection during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorders","volume":"45","author":"Zerbo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.119","article-title":"Prenatal fever and autism risk","volume":"23","author":"Hornig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2019.2309\\","article-title":"Association of prenatal maternal anemia with neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"76","author":"Wiegersma","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12944\/CRNFSJ.10.3.21","article-title":"Determinants of healthy food consumption and the effect of Saudi food related policies on the adult Saudi population, a national descriptive assessment 2019","volume":"10","author":"Sabur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Res Nutr Food Sci"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12944\/CRNFSJ.10.1.02","article-title":"Assessment of fast and junk food consumption and addiction among Saudi population. National descriptive study 2020","volume":"10","author":"Amer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Res Nutr Food Sci"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2018.1464819","article-title":"Diet: The keystone of autism spectrum disorder","volume":"22","author":"Peretti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nutr Neurosci"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S22","DOI":"10.1192\/bjo.2021.114","article-title":"Maternal stress in pregnancy and child autism spectrum disorder: evaluating putative causal associations using a genetically informed design","author":"Abdelrazek","year":"2021","journal-title":"BJPsych Open"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-60159-1_3","article-title":"The Developmental Effects of Prenatal Maternal Stress: Evolutionary Explanations","volume-title":"Prenatal Stress and Child Development","author":"Herba","year":"2021"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmiddleeast.2011.147","article-title":"Addressing autism in the Arab world","volume":"21","author":"Mostafa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat Middle East"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1363461509105823","article-title":"Autism in Saudi Arabia: presentation, clinical correlates and comorbidity","volume":"46","author":"Al-Salehi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transcult Psychiatry"},{"key":"B42","first-page":"2","article-title":"Autism in Saudi Arabia: present realities and future challenges","volume":"15","author":"Sulaimani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev Disabil Stud Int J"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2020.100804","article-title":"State of the art of genetic testing for patients with autism: A practical guide for clinicians","volume":"34","author":"Kreiman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jmg.32.8.62","article-title":"Consanguinity among the Saudi Arabian population","volume":"32","author":"El-Hazmi","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Med Genet"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2010.3765","article-title":"The role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of gestational diabetes mellitus","volume":"15","author":"Lappas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antioxid Redox Signaling"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-021-01912-9","article-title":"Association of maternal diabetes and autism spectrum disorders in offspring: a study in a rodent model of autism","volume":"72","author":"Aljumaiah","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Mol Neurosci"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00675","article-title":"autism spectrum disorders and Perinatal Complications-Is Oxidative Stress the Connection","volume":"10","author":"Mandic-Maravic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2674","article-title":"Identifying autism symptom severity trajectories across childhood","volume":"15","author":"Waizbard-Bartov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Autism Res"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24911\/IJMDC.51-1595277794","article-title":"Autism in Saudi Arabia, a challenge to Saudi families: A cross-sectional study","volume":"4","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Med Dev Ctries"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.108.051672","article-title":"Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis","volume":"195","author":"Gardener","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-1928-2","article-title":"Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1467821\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]],"date-time":"2024-12-20T06:29:30Z","timestamp":1734676170000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1467821\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"references-count":51,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1467821"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1467821","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,20]]},"article-number":"1467821"}}