{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T23:23:49Z","timestamp":1791329029702,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]],"date-time":"2025-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744156800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated strict safety measures and preparedness, potentially influencing mental well-being worldwide. This study investigated the impact of safety measures and preparedness levels on mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, USA examining how sociodemographic characteristics modified these associations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>A longitudinal study of 1,227 participants from three ongoing cohorts, provided data through telephone interviews across three waves from March 2020 to August 2021. Depression and anxiety were measured using Patient Health Questionnaire 8 (PHQ-8) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7). Logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes over time, adjusting for potential confounders and assessing the modification effect of demographic factors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>At Wave 1, 18% of participants reported moderate to severe depression, while 20% had moderate to severe anxiety. Over time, these rates declined significantly, with depression dropping to 9% and anxiety to 10% by Wave 3. Safety measures practiced at Wave 1 showed a protective effect on depression at Wave 3 (OR=0.45, 95% CI: 0.22, 0.91). Higher preparedness levels were significantly associated with reduced odds of anxiety (aOR=0.72, 95% CI: 0.55, 0.93) in the concurrent wave. Age specific analysis revealed that individuals aged 26-35 experienced stronger protective effects from higher preparedness levels (OR=0.43, 95% CI: 0.2, 0.92) compared to younger age groups.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study highlights the importance of safety measures and preparedness in mitigating mental health challenges during crises. Addressing age specific factors and preparedness levels can guide the public health strategies to better support diverse populations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1547178","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]],"date-time":"2025-04-09T05:20:04Z","timestamp":1744176004000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The relationship between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Thi Kim Ngan","family":"Vo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norbert","family":"Skokauskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keely","family":"Cheslack-Postava","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina W.","family":"Hoven","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010171","article-title":"Sociodemographic and COVID-related predictors for mental health condition of mainland chinese in Canada amidst the pandemic","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BSR20222644","article-title":"The influence of genetic and acquired factors on the vulnerability to develop depression: a review","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosci Rep"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-024-06305-x","article-title":"Loneliness, emotional support and the mental health of young adults and their parents in New York, US during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cohort study","volume":"24","author":"Akinkuowo","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2024.04.037","article-title":"The association between intolerance of uncertainty and depressive symptoms during COVID-19 in New York, USA","volume":"356","author":"Rafieian","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.03.067","article-title":"The trajectories of anxiety and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic and the protective role of psychological flexibility: a four-wave longitudinal study","volume":"307","author":"Landi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.02.004","article-title":"Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on anxiety and depression in primary care: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"303","author":"Stephenson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31142-9","article-title":"Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"395","author":"Chu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet (London England)"},{"key":"B8","article-title":"Face-touching Behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Self-inoculation and transmission potentials","volume":"95","author":"Wiener","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Dent Hyg"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2006.01568.x","article-title":"Handwashing and risk of respiratory infections: a quantitative systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Rabie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0286494","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0286494","article-title":"Mapping the association between mental health and people\u2019s perceived and actual ability to practice hygiene-related behaviours in humanitarian and pandemic crises: A scoping review","volume":"18","author":"Ghassemi","year":"2023","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hcs2.60","article-title":"Differential effectiveness of COVID-19 health behaviors: The role of mental health conditions in mask-wearing, social distancing, and hygiene practice","volume":"2","author":"Zhai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Care Sci"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomm.2021.689974","article-title":"A longitudinal analysis of handwashing and mask-wearing during COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Croucher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Commun"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00281-5","article-title":"Functional fear predicts public health compliance in the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"19","author":"Harper","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Addict"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e068302","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2021-068302","article-title":"Effectiveness of public health measures in reducing the incidence of covid-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and covid-19 mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"375","author":"Talic","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1864","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16757-7","article-title":"A qualitative study examining young peoples\u2019 perceptions and adherence to COVID-19 public health guidelines in Ireland","volume":"23","author":"Breslin","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-022-00970-2","article-title":"Depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic: epidemiology, mechanism, and treatment","volume":"39","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosci Bull"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03670244.2024.2308669","article-title":"The intersectionality of food insecurity, job insecurity, healthcare insecurity, and mental health challenges in NYC households during covid-19","volume":"63","author":"Gadhoke","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecol Food Nutr"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e513","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2023.175","article-title":"Pandemic readiness: disparities among new york city residents living in the epicenter of the COVID-19 outbreak","volume":"17","author":"Gunness","year":"2023","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0002602","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0002602","article-title":"COVID-19 preparedness and response in rural and remote areas: A scoping review","volume":"3","author":"Dudley","year":"2023","journal-title":"PloS Glob Public Health"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-020-05980-2","article-title":"Changes in COVID-19 knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, and preparedness among high-risk adults from the onset to the acceleration phase of the US outbreak","volume":"35","author":"Bailey","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0250294","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250294","article-title":"Inadequate preparedness for response to COVID-19 is associated with stress and burnout among healthcare workers in Ghana","volume":"16","author":"Afulani","year":"2021","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2019.78","article-title":"Does preparedness matter? The influence of household preparedness on disaster outcomes during superstorm sandy","volume":"14","author":"Clay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.943303","article-title":"Mental health in the Austrian general population during COVID-19: Cross-sectional study on the association with sociodemographic factors","volume":"13","author":"Humer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-024-02093-y","article-title":"Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in COVID-19 pandemic worries","author":"Hoven","year":"2024","journal-title":"J\u00a0Racial Ethn Health Disparities"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-024-01921-5","article-title":"Emotional and financial stressors in new york city during the COVID-19 pandemic: A consecutive cross-sectional analysis","volume":"12","author":"Heller","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Racial Ethn Health Disparities"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-023-02553-6","article-title":"Persistence of anxiety among Asian Americans: racial and ethnic heterogeneity in the longitudinal trends in mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"59","author":"Cheslack-Postava","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192316221","article-title":"Age-based differences in sleep quality, pre-sleep arousal, and psychosocial factors during the second wave lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic in Georgia-A higher vulnerability of younger people","volume":"19","author":"Tsaava","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2008.06.026","article-title":"The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population","volume":"114","author":"Kroenke","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"Generalized anxiety disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale","volume":"166","author":"Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2017.12.105","article-title":"Longitudinal determinants of depression among World Trade Center Health Registry enrollees, 14-15 years after the 9\/11 attacks","volume":"229","author":"Jacobson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.2307\/2534023","article-title":"Mixed effects logistic regression models for longitudinal binary response data with informative drop-out","volume":"54","author":"Ten Have","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"B32","article-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","year":"2023"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.626197","article-title":"Adjustment to a \u201cNew normal:\u201d Coping flexibility and mental health issues during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"12","author":"Cheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1201481","article-title":"The impact of the intensity of media use on potential tourists\u2019 risk perception and travel protective behavioral intentions in COVID-19","volume":"14","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2021.763876","article-title":"Young people\u2019s use of digital tools to support their mental health during covid-19 restrictions","volume":"3","author":"Pretorius","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Digit Health"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-17997-x","article-title":"Trajectories of mental health outcomes following COVID-19 infection: a prospective longitudinal study","volume":"24","author":"Badinlou","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.2482","article-title":"Global prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19: A meta-analysis","volume":"175","author":"Racine","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/jhsem-2014-0013","article-title":"Influence of mental health on disaster preparedness: Findings from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2007-2009","volume":"11","author":"Clay","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Homel Secur Emerg Manage"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2202\/1558-9544.1209","article-title":"Is SARS a poor man\u2019s disease? Socioeconomic status and risk factors for SARS transmission","volume":"13","author":"Bucchianeri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forum Health Econ Policy"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.734308","article-title":"Resilience to COVID-19: socioeconomic disadvantage associated with positive caregiver-youth communication and youth preventative actions","volume":"10","author":"Marshall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.08.001","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: A systematic review","volume":"277","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(14)00080-7","article-title":"The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health","volume":"1","author":"Arnett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.11591\/ijphs.v11i2.21372","article-title":"Mattering, social support, resilience and sense of empowerment during the pandemic","volume":"11","author":"Nga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Public Health Sci"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20032598","article-title":"The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on young adults\u2019 Mental health in Switzerland: A longitudinal cohort study from 2018 to 2021","volume":"20","author":"Foster","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e47","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2025.42","article-title":"Perceived preparedness and mental health in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK population","volume":"19","author":"Robinson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alonzo\n              D\n            \n            \n              Popescu\n              M\n            \n            \n              Ioannides-Zublaroglu\n              P\n            \n          \n          Global of Psychology Research: New Trends and Issues Long-term impacts and implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health\n          \n          2022","DOI":"10.18844\/gjpr.v12i2.7389"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-023-02457-5","article-title":"The impact of COVID-19 related adversity on the course of mental health during the pandemic and the role of protective factors: a longitudinal study among older adults in The Netherlands","volume":"58","author":"Holwerda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-023-01130-5","article-title":"Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, anxiety, and depression","volume":"11","author":"Kupcova","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Psychol"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5632","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09663-2","article-title":"Psychological distress and mental health trajectories during the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina: a longitudinal study","volume":"12","author":"Fern\u00e1ndez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1547178\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]],"date-time":"2025-04-09T05:20:09Z","timestamp":1744176009000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1547178\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]},"references-count":49,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1547178"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1547178","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]},"article-number":"1547178"}}