{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T06:40:32Z","timestamp":1776148832293,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":239,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776124800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many have speculated that events of personal and financial loss in the life of Rembrandt van Rijn (Rembrandt) caused depression and that this is revealed by examination of his work particularly self-portraits painted in old age. Some report detecting various physiological diseases associated with aging, including vision impairment, which may have affected his mood and work. Aging and neurodegenerative disease which often accompanies it, are both associated with depression. Depression is characterised by visual deficits including perception of reduced contrast and colour. Age-related neurological disorders are associated in artists with reduced complexity. Recent advances in imaging and computer technology make it possible to empirically examine changes in artistic style which can contribute to understanding artists\u2019 physical and mental health. Previous studies have identified associations between adverse events in artists\u2019 lives and altered contrast and colour in their self-portraits. In the current study changes in contrast, colour and fractal dimension were measured in the entire corpus of Rembrandt\u2019s painted self-portraits and portraits to determine whether changes in style indicate depression, cognitive decline, or neurological disease and whether differences in style can be detected between self-portraits and portraits of related and unrelated others. Productivity was also examined as an indirect indicator. The results suggest that it is unlikely that Rembrandt suffered from unipolar or bipolar depression, age-related cognitive decline, or neurodegenerative disease. The data are consistent with someone experiencing episodes of low mood associated with normal grieving and adversity followed by resilient recovery. There is evidence of a gradient in saliency and complexity between self-portraits and related and unrelated portraits and of a \u2018late\u2019 style identified by leading art historians consistent with macular degeneration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1631373","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T05:40:19Z","timestamp":1776145219000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Self images: an empirical enquiry into Rembrandt\u2019s self-portraits"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Eric C.","family":"Bettelheim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King\u2019s College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingyi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King\u2019s College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Dazzan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King\u2019s College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Turkheimer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King\u2019s College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5117\/9789053566251","volume-title":"Rembrandt, Reputation, and the Practice of Connoisseurship","author":"Scallen","year":"2004"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Rembrandt's Universe, His Art, His Life, His World","author":"Schwartz","year":"2019"},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"Rembrandt's Eyes","author":"Schama","year":"1999"},{"key":"B4","volume-title":"Rembrandt\u2019s self-portraits","author":"Chapman","year":"1990"},{"key":"B5","volume-title":"An introduction to rembrandt","author":"Clark","year":"1978"},{"key":"B6","volume-title":"Rembrandt\u2019s Paintings Revisited, A complete survey (reprint of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Vol VI)","author":"Van de Wetering","year":"2017"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1162\/001152606775321068","article-title":"The artist grows old","volume":"135","author":"Clark","year":"2006","journal-title":"Daedalus"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"Images of older people in Western art and society","author":"Covey","year":"1991"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"The art of aging. 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