{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T05:49:09Z","timestamp":1777268949578,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) and Visual evoked potentials (VEP) are common non-invasive diagnostic techniques. Researchers can use these techniques to identify possible biomarkers and explore the neurodevelopmental mechanisms underlying ADHD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The ADHD group (37 cases, average age 8.81\u00a0\u00b1\u00a01.44 years) and the healthy controls (38 cases, average age 8.97\u00a0\u00b1\u00a01.43 years), had the OCT and VEP. The retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL), optic disc parameters, and macular parameters were measured through OCT. The latencies of P100 and the amplitudes of N75-P100 and P100-N135 waves at three different spatial frequencies (visual angles of 15\u2019, 30\u2019, and 60\u2019) were tested through VEP.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The average RNFL and RNFL in each quadrant between the two groups were no statistically significant (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &amp;gt; 0.05). The optic disc area, average cup-to-disc ratio, and cup volume in the ADHD group were all significantly larger than those in the control group (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0&amp;lt;\u00a00.05). At three visual angles (15\u2019, 30\u2019, 60\u2019), P100-latency in the ADHD group were all more significant than those in the control group (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u00a0&amp;lt;\u00a00.05). The amplitudes of N75-P100 and P100-N135 in the ADHD group were all statistically significantly lower than those in the control group (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2264 0.001).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From the perspective of electroencephalophysiology, children with ADHD may have early visual information processing disorders. This provides a theoretical and practical basis for further early intervention in children with ADHD from the field of visual perception. The study protocol followed the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki, was approved by the local ethics committee (No 2023-2240), and was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (ChiCTR2400086223).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1803834","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T05:26:49Z","timestamp":1777267609000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Electrophysiological and morphological alteration in the visual pathway of children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Zixuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, China"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]},{"name":"Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ye","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, China"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gantian","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, China"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Biostatistics, Design, Measurement and Evaluation, Department of Clinical Research Management, West China Hospital of Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dapeng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education (MOE), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Ministry of Education (MOE), West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Longqian","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, China"]},{"name":"Laboratory of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China Hospital, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]},{"name":"Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University","place":["Chengdu, Sichuan, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-3482","article-title":"Prevalence of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"135","author":"Thomas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/gbb.12270","article-title":"The divergent impact of COMT Val158Met on executive function in children with and without attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"15","author":"Jin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genes Brain Behav"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2022_329","article-title":"ADHD in children and adults: diagnosis and prognosis","volume":"57","author":"Leffa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Topics Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2012.227","article-title":"The retina as a window to the brain-from eye research to CNS disorders","volume":"9","author":"London","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10092394","article-title":"Ocular neurodegenerative diseases: interconnection between retina and cortical areas","volume":"10","author":"Marchesi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2016.1180978","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography and neurodegeneration: are eyes the windows to the brain","volume":"16","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev Neurother"},{"key":"B7","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography as a promising imaging tool for brain investigations","volume":"55","author":"Osiac","year":"2014","journal-title":"Romanian J Morphology Embryology = Rev Roumaine Morphologie Embryologie"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2147\/EB.S235238","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: what can it tell us","volume":"13","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eye Brain"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dad2.12149","article-title":"The application of optical coherence tomography angiography in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Rifai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dementia (Amsterdam Netherlands)"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-023-02763-4","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography angiography measurements in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Neuroinflamm"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02438-7","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography angiography in Parkinson\u2019s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"37","author":"Katsimpris","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eye (London England)"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3928\/01913913-20230906-03","article-title":"Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell thickness, and macular thickness in children with comorbid specific learning disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"61","author":"Tonkaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbv073","article-title":"From imaging the brain to imaging the retina: optical coherence tomography (OCT) in schizophrenia","volume":"42","author":"Sch\u00f6nfeldt-Lecuona","year":"2016","journal-title":"Schizophr Bull"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2415-14-53","article-title":"Spectral domain optical coherence tomography in children: normative data and biometric correlations","volume":"14","author":"Al-Haddad","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2022.102050","article-title":"Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in children with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"98","author":"Bozkurt","year":""},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191119842255","article-title":"The validity of the SNAP-IV in children displaying ADHD symptoms","volume":"27","author":"Hall","year":"2020","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19397","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-46206-9","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis on the ocular characteristics in children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"13","author":"Dastamooz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.1070142","article-title":"Meta-analysis of structural and functional alterations of brain in patients with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"13","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2019-0606","article-title":"Assessment of intraocular pressure, macular thickness, retinal nerve fiber layer, and ganglion cell layer thicknesses: ocular parameters and optical coherence tomography findings in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"42","author":"I\u015fik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev Bras Psiquiatria (Sao Paulo Brazil 1999)"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.2217\/bmm.15.17","article-title":"Developing retinal biomarkers of neurological disease: an analytical perspective","volume":"9","author":"MacCormick","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomarkers Med"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4274\/nkmj.galenos.2025.53244","article-title":"Optic nerve head parameters, retinal nerve fiber layer and executive functions in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"13","author":"Tonkaz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nam\u0131k Kemal Med J"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-021-01852-8","article-title":"The association between attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and retinal nerve fiber\/ganglion cell layer thickness measured by optical coherence tomography: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.00049","article-title":"Efficiency in magnocellular processing: a common deficit in neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"14","author":"Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5535\/arm.2018.42.2.305","article-title":"Visual evoked potential in children with developmental disorders: correlation with neurodevelopmental outcomes","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Rehabil Med"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10561-2","article-title":"Visual evoked potential latency predicts cognitive function in people with multiple sclerosis","volume":"268","author":"Covey","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-197811000-00004","article-title":"Visual evoked potential characteristics and subtypes of schizophrenia","volume":"166","author":"Kadobayashi","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Nervous Ment Dis"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10633-023-09921-2","article-title":"Frequency-domain analysis of transient visual evoked potentials in schizophrenia","volume":"146","author":"Tsai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Documenta Ophthalmologica Adv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2024.02.020","article-title":"Visual evoked potentials in multiple sclerosis: P100 latency and visual pathway damage including the lateral geniculate nucleus","volume":"161","author":"Papadopoulou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2016.12.005","article-title":"Sensitivity of visual evoked potentials and spectral domain optical coherence tomography in early relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Behbehani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Multiple Sclerosis Related Disord"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10633-005-7350-0","article-title":"Epilepsy and medication effects on the pattern visual evoked potential","volume":"110","author":"Geller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Documenta Ophthalmologica Adv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2013.08.009","article-title":"Classification of ADHD and BMD patients using visual evoked potential","volume":"115","author":"Nazhvani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Neurol Neurosurg"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s43045-024-00441-6","article-title":"Sensory processing patterns among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using short sensory profile and evoked potentials: a case\u2013control study","volume":"31","author":"Salah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Middle East Curr Psychiatry"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2022.104255","article-title":"OCT and VEP correlate to disability in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis","volume":"68","author":"Eklund","year":"2022","journal-title":"Multiple Sclerosis Related Disord"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina49110074","article-title":"Evaluation of axonal optic nerve damage using visual evoked potentials and optical coherence tomography in patients with multiple sclerosis","volume":"49","author":"Pastare","year":"2013","journal-title":"Med (Kaunas Lithuania)"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0028-3886.364057","article-title":"Can lamina cribrosa indicate optic neuritis in multiple sclerosis","volume":"70","author":"Hamamc\u0131","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol India"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1701658","article-title":"ADHD: current concepts and treatments in children and adolescents","volume":"51","author":"Drechsler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropediatrics"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-3337-8_15","article-title":"Photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report number 1","volume":"103","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol (Chicago Ill 1960)"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5080\/u25584","article-title":"Retinal scan with optical coherence tomography in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Yeti\u015fkin DEHB olgular\u0131nda optik koherens tomografi ile retina taranmas\u0131","volume":"32","author":"T\u00fcnel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi = Turkish J Psychiatry"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oftal.2020.02.016","article-title":"Assessment of changes in the macula and optic nerve head using optical coherence tomography in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Evaluaci\u00f3n de los cambios en la m\u00e1cula y en el nervio \u00f3ptico mediante tomograf\u00eda de coherencia \u00f3ptica en pacientes con trastorno por d\u00e9ficit de atenci\u00f3n e hiperactividad","volume":"95","author":"S\u00e1nchez-Guill\u00e9n","year":"2020","journal-title":"Archivos la Sociedad Espanola Oftalmologia"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054716664412","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in children with ADHD","volume":"22","author":"Herg\u00fcner","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Attention Disord"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30773\/pi.2019.02.26.1","article-title":"Pilot study: an ocular biomarker for diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"16","author":"Bae","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Invest"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2015.10.006","article-title":"Decreases in ganglion cell layer and inner plexiform layer volumes correlate better with disease severity in schizophrenia patients than retinal nerve fiber layer thickness: findings from spectral optic coherence tomography","volume":"32","author":"Celik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur Psychiatry J Assoc Eur Psychiatrists"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-015-2981-7","article-title":"Peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in bipolar disorder","volume":"254","author":"Mehraban","year":"2016","journal-title":"Graefe\u2019s Arch For Clin Exp Ophthalmol = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur Klinische und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie"},{"key":"B44","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in adults","volume":"110","author":"Olagunju","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am Family Physician"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1212625","article-title":"Clinical practice: adult attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder","volume":"369","author":"Volkow","year":"2013","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-023-06005-7","article-title":"Reduced visual evoked potential amplitude in autistic children with co-occurring features of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"54","author":"Cremone-Caira","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optom.2014.10.002","article-title":"Color vision in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot visual evoked potential study","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Optometry"},{"key":"B48","article-title":"Combined evoked potentials in co-occuring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy","volume":"64","author":"Major","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ideggyogyaszati Szemle"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1803834\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T05:26:50Z","timestamp":1777267610000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1803834\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1803834"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1803834","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]]},"article-number":"1803834"}}