{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T05:55:20Z","timestamp":1790920520686,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coprolalia is a relatively rare type of complex vocal tic in people with Tourette syndrome (TS). In the general population, however, it is believed that coprolalia is the most typical and common symptom resulting in the stereotype of TS as the \u201cswearing disease\u201d. Swearing, however, also occurs as a \u201cnormal\u201d expression of negative emotions and thus occurs more often in people with impulse control problems. It is believed that there is a continuum reaching from voluntary to involuntary swearing. Besides coprolalia, in TS, coprophenomena may also occur in the form of motor tics, called copropraxia. Furthermore, other socially inappropriate behaviors have been described such as making socially inappropriate comments and actions, called Non Obscene Socially Inappropriate symptoms or NOSIS. Only recently, coprolalia has been identified as a core symptom in functional tic-like behaviors (FTLB), a relatively new and escalating presentation of a functional movement disorder (FMD). Today it is well-established that FTLB and TS represent two distinct clinical entities, although FTLB is a common comorbidity in TS. The overlap of diseases and disorders with the more incongruent presentations of FMD are well-established clinical concepts in other neurological disorders. This raises the clinically important question as to whether coprolalia as a complex tic can be differentiated at all from \u201ccoprolalia-like\u201d words as FTLB. Here, we want to introduce a novel concept regarding the classification of coprolalia, copropraxia, and NOSIS. We propose that it is important to consider the presence of obscene and\/or socially inappropriate words, behaviors and\/or insults as being more supportive of FTLB or a combination of both TS plus comorbid FTLB as opposed to being considered to be complex tic phenomena, since coprolalia and copropraxia are rare in TS. Given what we know about FTLB today, the symptom construct of NOSIS is probably not a separate symptom entity in TS. We therefore suggest that NOSIS should be preferable considered as comorbid FTLB. We believe that this novel re-conceptualization will lead us toward some explanations around inconsistent findings related to coprophenomena in TS. Furthermore, it is of high clinical relevance, since it opens wider management and treatment strategies including psychological interventions for people suffering from coprolalia, copropraxia, and NOSIS and will hopefully prevent these patients from inappropriate or even harmful treatments including invasive surgical therapies when being mistakenly classified as severely affected and treatment resistant patients with TS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1948442","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T05:35:18Z","timestamp":1790919318000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u201cI swear it\u2019s not Tourette\u2019s!\u201d - it is time to rethink coprolalia in Tourette syndrome"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Kirsten R.","family":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School","place":["Hannover, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christelle","family":"Nilles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Neurologie, Assistance Publique-H\u00f4pitaux de Paris (AP-HP), H\u00f4pital de La Piti\u00e9-Salp\u00eatri\u00e8re","place":["Paris, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nanette Mol","family":"Debes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Copenhagen University Hospital - Herlev and Gentofte","place":["Herlev, Denmark"]},{"name":"Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen","place":["Copenhagen, Denmark"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Szejko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School","place":["Hannover, Germany"]},{"name":"Department of Health Sociology, Education and Medical Communication, Institute of Mother and Child","place":["Warsaw, Poland"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tammy","family":"Hedderly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Evelina London Children\u2019s Hospital, GSTT and Kings College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Etude Sur Une Affection Nerveuse Charact\u00e9ris\u00e9e Par De L\u2019incoordination Motrice Accompagn\u00e9e D\u2019\u00e9cholalie Et De Coprolalie. \u010a Numerabilis \u010a Universit\u00e9 Paris Cit\u00e9"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-8619(05)70314-5","article-title":"Coprolalia and other coprophenomena","volume":"15","author":"Singer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurol Clin"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"385","article-title":"Memorie sur quelques fonctions involuntaries des appareils de la locomotion de la prehension et de la voix","volume":"8","author":"Itard","year":"1825","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2020.01.353","article-title":"The Marquise de Dampierre identified at last, the first described clinical case of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome","volume":"176","author":"Walusinski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev Neurol (Paris)"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27409","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-66366-8","article-title":"Stereotypes about Tourette syndrome and associations with social media use: Results from a large-scale German population survey","volume":"16","author":"Cramer","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0317167100016620","article-title":"The portrayal of Tourette syndrome in film and television","volume":"41","author":"Calder-Sprackman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/S00787-025-02939-8","article-title":"Call for action: Misinformation about Tourette syndrome from major media network","author":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.03.016","article-title":"Swearing and coprophenomena \u2013 a multidimensional approach","volume":"126","author":"Senberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(99)00060-0","article-title":"Expletives: Neurolinguistic and neurobehavioral perspectives on swearing","volume":"31","author":"Van Lancker","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Res Rev"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1745-6924.2009.01115.X","article-title":"The utility and ubiquity of taboo words","volume":"4","author":"Jay","year":"2009","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2004.03.018","article-title":"Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder\/learning disabilities (ADHD\/LD): Parental characterization and perception","volume":"57","author":"Brook","year":"2005","journal-title":"Patient Educ Couns"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/AMP0001650","article-title":"Don\u2019t hold back\u201d: Swearing improves strength through state disinhibition","author":"Stephens","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYG.2020.00723","article-title":"Swearing as a response to pain: Assessing hypoalgesic effects of novel \u201cswear\u201d words","volume":"11","author":"Stephens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/8821517","article-title":"Profanity as a self-defense mechanism and an outlet for emotional catharsis in stress, anxiety, and depression","volume":"2023","author":"Husain","year":"2023","journal-title":"Depress Res Treat"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.14802\/JMD.21045","article-title":"Premonitory urges reconsidered: Urge location corresponds to tic location in patients with primary tic disorders","volume":"15","author":"Essing","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Mov Disord"},{"key":"B16","unstructured":"Top Swear Words: Most Popular Curse Words on Facebook"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5930","DOI":"10.3390\/JCM11195930","article-title":"Why tic severity changes from then to now and from here to there","volume":"11","author":"Iverson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/MDC3.13742","article-title":"Premonitory urge and tic severity, comorbidities, and quality of life in chronic tic disorders","volume":"10","author":"Brandt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mov Disord Clin Pract"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/MDC3.13703","article-title":"Have we forgotten what tics are? A re-exploration of tic phenomenology in youth with primary tics","volume":"10","author":"Nilles","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mov Disord Clin Pract"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/PRACTNEUROL-2017-001755","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s syndrome and its borderland","volume":"18","author":"Stern","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pract Neurol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1469-8749.2008.03135.X","article-title":"Coprophenomena in tourette syndrome","volume":"51","author":"Freeman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"B22","unstructured":"Gilles de la Tourette syndrome\n          \n          \n            \n              Shapiro\n              A\n            \n            \n              Shapiro\n              E\n            \n            \n              Young\n              J\n            \n            \n              Feinberg\n              T\n            \n          \n          \n          1988"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/JNP.8.3.311","article-title":"Non-obscene complex socially inappropriate behavior in Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Kurlan","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"B24","unstructured":"Tourette syndrome and human behavior\n          \n          \n            \n              Comings\n              DE\n            \n          \n          \n          1992"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/MDS.870090607","article-title":"Coprolalia in younger patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Goldenberg","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000086370.10186.7C","article-title":"Objective assessments of longitudinal outcome in Gilles de la Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"61","author":"Pappert","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/JNNP.47.1.1","article-title":"A clinical study of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in the United Kingdom","volume":"47","author":"Lees","year":"1984","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"B28","article-title":"Tourette-Syndrom und Andere Tic-St\u00f6rungen : Im Kindes- und Erwachsenenalter","author":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","year":"2024"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JPSYCHIRES.2013.05.019","article-title":"On being your own worst enemy: An investigation of socially inappropriate symptoms in Tourette syndrome","volume":"47","author":"Eddy","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2008.03.007","article-title":"The prevalence and epidemiology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Part 2: Tentative explanations for differing prevalence figures in GTS, including the possible effects of psychopathology, aetiology, cultural differences, and differing phenotypes","volume":"65","author":"Robertson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2008.03.006","article-title":"The prevalence and epidemiology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Part 1: The epidemiological and prevalence studies","volume":"65","author":"Robertson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2009.09.002","article-title":"Clinical course of Tourette syndrome","volume":"67","author":"Bloch","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3951","DOI":"10.1038\/S41598-019-40133-4","article-title":"Provisional tic disorder is not so transient","volume":"9","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.COMPPSYCH.2024.152510","article-title":"We\u2019ve all been wrong about provisional tic disorder","volume":"134","author":"Grossen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Compr Psychiatry"},{"key":"B35","unstructured":"When you\u2019re (not) the stereotype: Coprolalia stigma in the lives of adults with Tourette syndrome\n          \n          \n            \n              Zito\n              RC\n            \n          \n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S72284","article-title":"Are there distinct subtypes in Tourette syndrome? Pure-Tourette syndrome versus Tourette syndrome-plus, and simple versus complex tics","volume":"11","author":"Eapen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e200369","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0000000000200369","article-title":"Coprophenomena associated with worse individual and family function for youth with Tourette syndrome: A cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"Myers","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol Clin Pract"},{"key":"B38","unstructured":"Pathways from genes to symptoms in Tourette syndrome\n          \n          \n            \n              Eapen\n              V\n            \n            \n              Perkes\n              I\n            \n            \n              Golf\n              R\n            \n          \n          \n          2022"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/BJP.164.2.263","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s syndrome in New Zealand. A postal survey","volume":"164","author":"Robertson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2022.08.010","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of Tourette syndrome prevalence; 1986 to 2022","volume":"137","author":"Jafari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/PCC.V10N0203","article-title":"Clinical correlates of Tourette\u2019s disorder across cultures: A comparative study between the United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom","volume":"10","author":"Eapen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199504000-00003","article-title":"DSM-IV criteria for tourette\u2019s","volume":"34","author":"Freeman","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B43","unstructured":"Tourette syndrome in Japan: etiologic considerations based on associated factors and familial clustering - PubMed"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70252","DOI":"10.1111\/ENE.70252","article-title":"The phenomenology of tics in adults: Data from the Calgary and Paris adult tic disorders registry","volume":"32","author":"Nilles","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2479","DOI":"10.3390\/JCM10112479","article-title":"A comprehensive review of tic disorders in children","volume":"10","author":"Ueda","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/08830738060210081001","article-title":"Tourette syndrome: The self under siege","volume":"21","author":"Leckman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Child Neurol"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.11.013","article-title":"Clinical assessment of Tourette syndrome and tic disorders","volume":"37","author":"Cohen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.3390\/BRAINSCI15050435","article-title":"Neurodevelopmental tics with co-morbid functional tic-like behaviors: Diagnostic challenges of a complex Tourette syndrome phenotype","volume":"15","author":"Cavanna","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/MDC3.13932","article-title":"Functional tic-like behaviors: A common comorbidity in patients with Tourette syndrome","volume":"11","author":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mov Disord Clin Pract"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2016.10.021","article-title":"I swear it is Tourette\u2019s!\u201d: On functional coprolalia and other tic-like vocalizations","volume":"246","author":"Ganos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ENE.15611","article-title":"The spectrum of functional tic-like behaviours: Data from an international registry","volume":"30","author":"Martino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2716","DOI":"10.1002\/MDS.28853","article-title":"Mind the difference between primary tics and functional tic\u2010like behaviors","volume":"36","author":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Movement Disord"},{"key":"B53","unstructured":"European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome 2022 criteria for clinical diagnosis of functional tic-like behaviours: International consensus from experts in tic disorders\n          \n          \n            \n              Pringsheim\n              T\n            \n            \n              Ganos\n              C\n            \n            \n              Nilles\n              C\n            \n          \n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/HEALTHCARE12111106","article-title":"Functional tic-like behaviors: From the COVID-19 pandemic to the post-pandemic era","volume":"12","author":"Cavanna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Healthcare"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/J.PEDIATRNEUROL.2022.02.003","article-title":"The phenomenology of tics and tic-like behavior in TikTok","volume":"130","author":"Zea Vera","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/FPSYT.2022.963769","article-title":"Mass social media-induced illness presenting with Tourette-like behavior","volume":"13","author":"Fremer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16262","DOI":"10.1111\/ENE.16262","article-title":"Testing the specificity of phenomenological criteria for functional tic-like behaviours in youth with Tourette syndrome","volume":"31","author":"Nilles","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0000000000200067","article-title":"Creating a patient-based diagnostic checklist for functional tics during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"12","author":"Trau","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol Clin Pract"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/JNNP-2022-330822","article-title":"Distinguishing functional from primary tics: a study of expert video assessments","volume":"94","author":"Rigas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/JCM11216470","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of functional tic-like phenomena","volume":"11","author":"Malaty","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mdc3.13951","article-title":"Premonitory urge in patients with tics and functional tic-like behaviors","volume":"11","author":"Szejko","year":"2023"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/123.3.425","article-title":"Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment","volume":"123","author":"Robertson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.3390\/BRAINSCI15060620","article-title":"Simple and complex phonic tics in Tourette syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Baizabal-Carvallo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ENE.15034","article-title":"Rapid onset of functional tic-like behaviours in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"28","author":"Pringsheim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/J.1440-1819.1997.TB02599.X","article-title":"Differences in clinical characteristics between Tourette syndrome patients with and without \u201cgeneralized tics\u201d or coprolalia","volume":"51","author":"Kano","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-198907000-00015","article-title":"The Yale Global Tic Severity Scale: Initial testing of a clinician-rated scale of tic severity","volume":"28","author":"Leckman","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B67","unstructured":"Psychosocial factors in Tourette syndrome - PubMed"},{"key":"B68","article-title":"\u00c9tude sur une affection nerveuse caract\u00e9ris\u00e9e par de l\u2019incoordination motrice accompagn\u00e9e d\u2019echolalie et de coprolalie","volume":"9","author":"Gilles de la Tourette","year":"1885","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"B69","unstructured":"A case of tic of Gilles de la Tourette cured by R 1625] - PubMed"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2020.10.022","article-title":"Functional movement disorder comorbidity in Parkinson\u2019s disease: Unraveling the web","volume":"82","author":"Kurtis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/S10548-016-0525-Z","article-title":"Putting the pieces together in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Exploring the link between clinical observations and the biological basis of dysfunction","volume":"30","author":"Hashemiyoon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Topography"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1841663","article-title":"From urge to action: an integrative neuropsychological model of tic generation in Tourette syndrome","volume":"17","author":"Zamboni","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-443-13554-5.00023-7","article-title":"Neurotransmitter abnormalities in primary tic disorders and Tourette syndrome","volume":"215","author":"Worbe","year":"2026","journal-title":"Handb Clin Neurol"},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5603\/PJNNS.103052","article-title":"Biomarkers of functional movement disorders \u2014 a systematic review","volume":"59","author":"Dunalska","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol Neurochir Pol"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/BRAIN\/AWAB316","article-title":"Stop that! It\u2019s not Tourette\u2019s but a new type of mass sociogenic illness","volume":"145","author":"M\u00fcller-Vahl","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1948442\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T05:35:20Z","timestamp":1790919320000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1948442\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"references-count":75,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1948442"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2026.1948442","relation":{},"ISSN":["1664-0640"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1664-0640","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"article-number":"1948442"}}