{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T21:45:26Z","timestamp":1776894326919,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]],"date-time":"2021-03-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Background:<\/jats:bold> The social environment, comprised of social support, social burden, and quality of interactions, influences a range of health outcomes, including mental health. Passive audio data collection on mobile phones (e.g., episodic recording of the auditory environment without requiring any active input from the phone user) enables new opportunities to understand the social environment. We evaluated the use of passive audio collection on mobile phones as a window into the social environment while conducting a study of mental health among adolescent and young mothers in Nepal.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Methods:<\/jats:bold> We enrolled 23 adolescent and young mothers who first participated in qualitative interviews to describe their social support and identify sounds potentially associated with that support. Then, episodic recordings were collected for 2 weeks from the mothers using an app to record 30 s of audio every 15 min from 4 A.M. to 9 P.M. Audio data were processed and classified using a pretrained model. Each classification category was accompanied by an estimated accuracy score. Manual validation of the machine-predicted speech and non-speech categories was done for accuracy.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> In qualitative interviews, mothers described a range of positive and negative social interactions and the sounds that accompanied these. Potential positive sounds included adult speech and laughter, infant babbling and laughter, and sounds from baby toys. Sounds characterizing negative stimuli included yelling, crying, screaming by adults and crying by infants. Sounds associated with social isolation included silence and TV or radio noises. Speech comprised 43% of all passively recorded audio clips (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 7,725). Manual validation showed a 23% false positive rate and 62% false-negative rate for speech, demonstrating potential underestimation of speech exposure. Other common sounds were music and vehicular noises.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Conclusions:<\/jats:bold> Passively capturing audio has the potential to improve understanding of the social environment. However, a pre-trained model had the limited accuracy for identifying speech and lacked categories allowing distinction between positive and negative social interactions. To improve the contribution of passive audio collection to understanding the social environment, future work should improve the accuracy of audio categorization, code for constellations of sounds, and combine audio with other smartphone data collection such as location and activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.633606","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]],"date-time":"2021-03-29T04:54:30Z","timestamp":1616993670000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["What Does Social Support Sound Like? Challenges and Opportunities for Using Passive Episodic Audio Collection to Assess the Social Environment"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Anubhuti","family":"Poudyal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alastair","family":"van Heerden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ashley","family":"Hagaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Celia","family":"Islam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ada","family":"Thapa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sujen Man","family":"Maharjan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Prabin","family":"Byanjankar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brandon A.","family":"Kohrt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-018-1736-5","article-title":"Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.midw.2018.04.005","article-title":"Changes in maternal self-efficacy, postnatal depression symptoms and social support among Chinese primiparous women during the initial postpartum period: a longitudinal study","volume":"62","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Midwifery."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2015.5292","article-title":"Predictors of postpartum depression among immigrant women in the year after childbirth","volume":"25","author":"Ganann","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Womens Health."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-016-1315-3","article-title":"Loss of group memberships predicts depression in postpartum mothers","volume":"52","author":"Seymour-Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s00737-015-0551-y","article-title":"Maternal-infant mental health: postpartum group intervention","volume":"19","author":"de Camps Meschino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch Womens Ment Health."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1542-2011.2011.00140.x","article-title":"How do previous mental health, social support, and stressful life events contribute to postnatal depression in a representative sample of Australian women?","volume":"57","author":"Chojenta","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Midwifery Womens Health."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028332","article-title":"Perceived partner support in pregnancy predicts lower maternal and infant distress","volume":"26","author":"Stapleton","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Fam Psychol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2702.2011.03701.x","article-title":"First-time mothers: social support, maternal parental self-efficacy and postnatal depression","volume":"21","author":"Leahy-Warren","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Clin Nurs."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01107897","article-title":"Social support and social structure","volume":"2","author":"House","year":"1987","journal-title":"Sociol Forum"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/1054-139X(94)90134-O","article-title":"A review of social support theories and instruments used in adolescent mothering research","volume":"15","author":"Secco","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2010.2509","article-title":"Unmet social support for healthy behaviors among overweight and obese postpartum women: results from the active mothers postpartum study","volume":"20","author":"Boothe","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Womens Health."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2011.09.011","article-title":"Social support and online postpartum depression discussion groups: a content analysis","volume":"87","author":"Evans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Patient Educ Couns."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12649","DOI":"10.2196\/12649","article-title":"Passive sensing of health outcomes through smartphones: systematic review of current solutions and possible limitations","volume":"7","author":"Trifan","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Mhealth Uhealth."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.08.048","article-title":"Natural outdoor environments and mental health: stress as a possible mechanism","volume":"159","author":"Triguero-Mas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ Res."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.11295","article-title":"Digital phenotyping: technology for a new science of behavior","volume":"318","author":"Insel","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MIC.2008.90","article-title":"The rise of people-centric sensing","volume":"12","author":"Campbell","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Comput"},{"key":"B17","first-page":"36","article-title":"Monitoring sleep and detecting irregular nights through unconstrained smartphone sensing","volume-title":"12th Intl Conf on Ubiquitous Intelligence and Computing and 2015 IEEE 12th Intl Conf on Autonomic and Trusted Computing and 2015 IEEE 15th Intl Conf on Scalable Computing and Communications and Its Associated Workshops (UIC-ATC-ScalCom)","author":"Huang","year":"2015"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2017.12.008","article-title":"Systematic review of smartphone-based passive sensing for health and wellbeing","volume":"77","author":"Cornet","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Biomed Inform."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e14734","DOI":"10.2196\/14734","article-title":"Wearable digital sensors to identify risks of postpartum depression and personalize psychological treatment for adolescent mothers: protocol for a mixed methods exploratory study in rural Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Poudyal","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Res Protoc."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-032816-044949","article-title":"Personal sensing: understanding mental health using ubiquitous sensors and machine learning","volume":"13","author":"Mohr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu Rev Clin Psychol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1002748","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002748","article-title":"Community-, facility-, and individual-level outcomes of a district mental healthcare plan in a low-resource setting in Nepal: A population-based evaluation","volume":"16","author":"Jordans","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"B22","volume-title":"National Population and Housing Census 2011","year":"2011"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.2018.300","article-title":"Effectiveness of psychological treatments for depression and alcohol use disorder delivered by community-based counsellors: two pragmatic randomised controlled trials within primary healthcare in Nepal","volume":"215","author":"Jordans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1007\/s11013-008-9110-6","article-title":"Navigating diagnoses: understanding mind-body relations, mental health, and stigma in Nepal","volume":"32","author":"Kohrt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cult Med Psychiatry."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1002\/cd.23219894307","article-title":"HOME measurement of maternal responsiveness","volume":"43","author":"Bradley","year":"1989","journal-title":"New Dir Child Dev"},{"key":"B26","first-page":"417","article-title":"Home observation for measurement of the environment: a validation study of screening efficiency","volume":"81","author":"Bradley","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am J Ment Defic."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-6571-1","article-title":"The relationship between responsive caregiving and child outcomes: evidence from direct observations of mother-child dyads in Pakistan","volume":"19","author":"Scherer","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e025644","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-025644","article-title":"Cohort Profile: Perinatal depression and child socioemotional development; the Bachpan cohort study from rural Pakistan","volume":"9","author":"Sikander","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-016-1530-y","article-title":"The effectiveness of the peer delivered Thinking Healthy Plus (THPP+) programme for maternal depression and child socio-emotional development in Pakistan: study protocol for a three-year cluster randomized controlled trial","volume":"17","author":"Turner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trials."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1093\/intqhc\/mzm042","article-title":"Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups","volume":"19","author":"Tong","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int J Qual Health Care."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e12366","DOI":"10.2196\/12366","article-title":"Procedures to select digital sensing technologies for passive data collection with children and their caregivers: qualitative cultural assessment in South Africa and Nepal","volume":"2","author":"Kohrt","year":"2019","journal-title":"JMIR Pediatr Parent."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/1556264619881334","article-title":"In-home passive sensor data collection and its implications for social media research: perspectives of community women in Rural South Africa","volume":"15","author":"van Heerden","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Empir Res Hum Res Ethics."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-017-0170-2","article-title":"Translating mental health diagnostic and symptom terminology to train health workers and engage patients in cross-cultural, non-English speaking populations","volume":"11","author":"Acharya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Syst."},{"key":"B34","volume-title":"NVIVO qualitative Data Analysis Software","year":"2012"},{"key":"B35","first-page":"576","volume-title":"Analyzing Qualitative Data: Systematic Approaches.","author":"Bernard","year":"2016"},{"key":"B36","volume-title":"Applied Thematic Analysis","author":"Guest","year":"2011"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2017.7952132","article-title":"CNN architectures for large-scale audio classification.","volume-title":"IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP)","author":"Hershey","year":"2017"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3191775","article-title":"Tracking depression dynamics in college students using mobile phone and wearable sensing","volume-title":"ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies","author":"Wang","year":"2018"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1889681.1889688","article-title":"Inferring colocation and conversation networks from privacy-sensitive audio with implications for computational social science","volume":"7","author":"Wyatt","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACM Transact Intellig Syst Technol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocv200","article-title":"Automatic detection of social rhythms in bipolar disorder","volume":"23","author":"Abdullah","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Am Med Inform Assoc."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1145\/2030112.2030164","article-title":"Passive and in-situ assessment of mental and physical well-being using mobile sensors","volume":"2011","author":"Rabbi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc ACM Int Conf Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-006-0051-5","article-title":"Negative life events, social support and gender difference in depression: a multinational community survey with data from the ODIN study","volume":"41","author":"Dalgard","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-011-0317-x","article-title":"Measuring population mental health and social well-being","volume":"57","author":"Van Lente","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Public Health."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1037\/prj0000130","article-title":"Next-generation psychiatric assessment: Using smartphone sensors to monitor behavior and mental health","volume":"38","author":"Ben-Zeev","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatr Rehabil J."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/2632048.2632054","article-title":"StudentLife: assessing mental health, academic performance and behavioral trends of college students using smartphones","volume-title":"2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing","author":"Wang","year":"2014"},{"key":"B46","first-page":"142","article-title":"Daily mood assessment based on mobile phone sensing","volume-title":"9th International Conference on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks: IEEE","author":"Ma","year":"2012"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000182","article-title":"Maternal scaffolding and home stimulation: Key mediators of early intervention effects on children's cognitive development","volume":"52","author":"Obradovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev Psychol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1111\/cch.12287","article-title":"The development and reliability of an observational tool for assessing mother-child interactions in field studies- experience from Pakistan","volume":"41","author":"Rasheed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20161357","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-1357","article-title":"Paternal stimulation and early child development in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"138","author":"Jeong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2014.2343154","article-title":"Smartphone-based recognition of states and state changes in bipolar disorder patients","volume":"19","author":"Grunerbl","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J Biomed Health Inform."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2007.11.045","article-title":"The long-term effects of intimate partner violence on adolescent mothers' depressive symptoms","volume":"66","author":"Lindhorst","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-019-2256-0","article-title":"Associations between intimate partner violence profiles and mental health among low-income, urban pregnant adolescents","volume":"19","author":"Thomas","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Pregnancy Childbirth."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260510372944","article-title":"Intimate partner violence among general and urban poor populations in Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"26","author":"Oshiro","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Interpers Viol."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415","article-title":"Ecological momentary assessment","volume":"4","author":"Shiffman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu Rev Clin Psychol."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1177\/1525822X20912211","article-title":"Citizen sociolinguistics: a data collection approach for hard-to-capture naturally occurring language data","volume":"32","author":"SturtzSreetharan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Field Methods"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.20529\/IJME.2009.004","article-title":"Should mental health assessments be integral to domestic violence research?","volume":"6","author":"Satyanarayana","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J Med Ethics."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e72","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.5505","article-title":"Mobile phone-based unobtrusive ecological momentary assessment of day-to-day mood: an explorative study","volume":"18","author":"Asselbergs","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e175","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.4273","article-title":"Mobile phone sensor correlates of depressive symptom severity in daily-life behavior: an exploratory study","volume":"17","author":"Saeb","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.633606\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]],"date-time":"2021-03-29T04:54:45Z","timestamp":1616993685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.633606\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2021.633606"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.633606","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,29]]},"article-number":"633606"}}