{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T04:08:40Z","timestamp":1780718920340,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Introduction:<\/jats:bold> Pharmacological neuroenhancement (PN) is a topic of increasing importance and prevalence among students. However, there is a lack of differentiating PN substances, according to their psychoactive effects. In particular, there is a lack of data about PN by caffeinated drinks, even if coffee is a common and broadly used Neuroenhancer because of its cognitively enhancing effects regarding wakefulness, alertness and concentration.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Materials and Methods:<\/jats:bold> A web-survey was developed for German students and alumni about the non-medical use of caffeine for PN contained questions about coffee, caffeinated drinks and energy drinks, caffeine pills and methylxanthine tea regarding frequency and further contextual factors.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> Six hundred and eighty-three participants completed the survey. Nearly all participants knew about PN (97.7%). 88.1% admitted using some over-the-counter substances. For PN purposes, coffee was used by 72.9% followed by energy drinks (68.2%) and cola drinks (62.4%). Methylxanthine containing tea was used for PN purposes, too (black tea 52.3%, green tea 51.7%). 1.8% admitted using illegal substances or prescription drugs, too.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Discussion:<\/jats:bold> Using legal methylxanthine containing drinks for PN seems to be extremely common with coffee and energy drinks being the preferred substances, while illegal and prescription drugs are only minimally used. Further studies should investigate the awareness of methylxanthine containing drinks as well as its character to be a flavoring drink or a neuroenhancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T05:09:51Z","timestamp":1623042591000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Just \u201cLike Coffee\u201d or Neuroenhancement by Stimulants?"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Andreas G.","family":"Franke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriele","family":"Koller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Krause","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Proebstl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Felicia","family":"Kamp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oliver","family":"Pogarell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tarek","family":"Jebrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirsi","family":"Manz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka I.","family":"Chrobok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Soyka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1038\/452674a","article-title":"Poll results: look who's doping","volume":"452","author":"Maher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S83","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-014-0537-1","article-title":"Substances used and prevalence rates of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among healthy subjects","volume":"264","author":"Franke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1038\/456702a","article-title":"Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy","volume":"456","author":"Greely","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1038\/embor.2011.15","article-title":"Academic doping or viagra for the brain? The history of recreational drug use and pharmacological enhancement can provide insight into these uses of neuropharmaceuticals","volume":"12","author":"Lucke","year":"2011","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2472","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-1644","article-title":"Adolescents' motivations to abuse prescription medications","volume":"118","author":"Boyd","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1166","article-title":"Randomized response estimates for the 12-month prevalence of cognitive-enhancing drug use in university students","volume":"33","author":"Dietz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00494","article-title":"Prevalence estimates for pharmacological neuroenhancement in Austrian university students: its relation to health-related risk attitude and the framing effect of caffeine tablets","volume":"9","author":"Dietz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e77967","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077967","article-title":"To dope or not to dope: neuroenhancement with prescription drugs and drugs of abuse among Swiss university students","volume":"8","author":"Maier","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2005.00944.x","article-title":"Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey","volume":"100","author":"McCabe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"key":"B10","first-page":"27","article-title":"Prevalence of stimulant use in a sample of US medical students","volume":"25","author":"Webb","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann Clin Psychiatry"},{"key":"B11","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention","author":"Preedy","year":"2014"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2017.01.006","article-title":"Methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine for cognitive enhancement in chess: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial","volume":"27","author":"Franke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2869.2008.00654.x","article-title":"Effects of dextroamphetamine, caffeine and modafinil on psychomotor vigilance test performance after 44 h of continuous wakefulness","volume":"17","author":"Killgore","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Sleep Res."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/32.2.205","article-title":"Sustaining executive functions during sleep deprivation: a comparison of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil","volume":"32","author":"Killgore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sleep."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2869.2005.00468.x","article-title":"Performance and alertness effects of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil during sleep deprivation","volume":"14","author":"Wesensten","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Sleep Res"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s00103-010-1105-0","article-title":"Pharmakologisches Neuroenhancement und \u201cHirndoping\u201d","volume":"53","author":"Franke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bundesgesundheitsbl."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e40047","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0040047","article-title":"What users think about the differences between caffeine and illicit\/prescription stimulants for cognitive enhancement","volume":"7","author":"Franke","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2013.11.008","article-title":"Abuse of methylphenidate in Germany: data from spontaneous reports of adverse drug reactions","volume":"30","author":"Gahr","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00101","article-title":"Using caffeine pills for performance enhancement. An experimental study on university students' willingness and their intention to try neuroenhancements","volume":"7","author":"Brand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Psychol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-014-9218-z","article-title":"Knowledge, experiences and views of german university students toward neuroenhancement: an empirical-ethical analysis","volume":"8","author":"Forlini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroethics."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0030-1268417","article-title":"Non-medical use of prescription stimulants and illicit use of stimulants for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany","volume":"44","author":"Franke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0031-1286347","article-title":"Use of coffee, caffeinated drinks and caffeine tablets for cognitive enhancement in pupils and students in Germany","volume":"44","author":"Franke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2007.12.001","article-title":"Botox for the brain: enhancement of cognition, mood and pro-social behavior and blunting of unwanted memories","volume":"32","author":"de Jongh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0887-378X.2004.00319.x","article-title":"Cognition-enhancing drugs","volume":"82","author":"Mehlman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Milbank Q"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s00103-010-1105-0","article-title":"Pharmacological neuroenhancement and brain doping: chances and risks","volume":"53","author":"Franke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0141289","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0141289","article-title":"The use of prescription drugs, recreational drugs, and \u201csoft enhancers\u201d for cognitive enhancement among swiss secondary school students","volume":"10","author":"Liakoni","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B27","first-page":"1875","article-title":"A preliminary study on cognitive enhancer consumption behaviors and motives of French medicine and pharmacology students","volume":"18","author":"Micoulaud-Franchi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130000383","article-title":"A naturalistic investigation of the effetcs of day long consumtion of tea, coffee and water on alertness, sleep onset and sleep quality","volume":"149","author":"Hindmarch","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology (Berl)."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3200\/JACH.53.4.167-174","article-title":"Illicit use of prescribed stimulant medication among college students","volume":"53","author":"Hall","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Am Coll Health."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-017-9822-3","article-title":"Why do you drink caffeine? The development of the motives for caffeine consumption questionnaire (MCCQ) and its relationship with gender, age and the types of caffeinated beverages","volume":"16","author":"Agoston","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Addict."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000000830","article-title":"The use of caffeinated substances by surgeons for cognitive enhancement","volume":"261","author":"Franke","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann Surg."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-11-102","article-title":"Use of illicit and prescription drugs for cognitive or mood enhancement among surgeons","volume":"11","author":"Franke","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-018-0174-1","article-title":"Pharmacological neuroenhancement and the ability to recover from stress\u2014a representative cross-sectional survey among the German population","volume":"13","author":"Bagusat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1080\/00952990600918965","article-title":"Is caffeine addictive?","volume":"32","author":"Satel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse."},{"key":"B35","first-page":"25","article-title":"Energy drinks: psychological effects and impact on well-being and quality of life-a literature review","volume":"9","author":"Ishak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Innov Clin Neurosci."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12560","article-title":"Red Bull\u00ae energy drink increases consumption of higher concentrations of alcohol","volume":"23","author":"Rold\u00e1n","year":"2018","journal-title":"Addict Biol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]],"date-time":"2021-06-07T05:09:57Z","timestamp":1623042597000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,7]]},"article-number":"640154"}}