{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T07:06:24Z","timestamp":1793516784854,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648512000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42071368"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42071368"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["81803289"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81803289"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007128","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020JM-329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JM-329"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007128","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Influenza shares the same putative transmission pathway with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and causes tremendous morbidity and mortality annually globally. Since the transmission of COVID-19 in China, a series of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) against to the disease have been implemented to contain its transmission. Based on the surveillance data of influenza, Search Engine Index, and meteorological factors from 2011 to 2021 in Xi'an, and the different level of emergence responses for COVID-19 from 2020 to 2021, Bayesian Structural Time Series model and interrupted time series analysis were applied to quantitatively assess the impact of NPIs in sequent phases with different intensities, and to estimate the reduction of influenza infections. From 2011 to 2021, a total of 197,528 confirmed cases of influenza were reported in Xi'an, and the incidence of influenza continuously increased from 2011 to 2019, especially, in 2019\u20132020, when the incidence was up to 975.90 per 100,000 persons; however, it showed a sharp reduction of 97.68% in 2020\u20132021, and of 87.22% in 2021, comparing with 2019\u20132020. The highest impact on reduction of influenza was observed in the phase of strict implementation of NPIs with an inclusion probability of 0.54. The weekly influenza incidence was reduced by 95.45%, and an approximate reduction of 210,100 (95% CI: 125,100\u2013329,500) influenza infections was found during the post-COVID-19 period. The reduction exhibited significant variations in the geographical, population, and temporal distribution. Our findings demonstrated that NPIs against COVID-19 had a long-term impact on the reduction of influenza transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.863522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T04:18:21Z","timestamp":1648613901000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["From Outbreak to Near Disappearance: How Did Non-pharmaceutical Interventions Against COVID-19 Affect the Transmission of Influenza Virus?"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Shuxuan","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minghao","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zurong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nuoya","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jifeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongjun","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Influenza (Seasonal) [EB\/OL]"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000316","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/35686514-b7a9-4f65-9663-7baefc0d63c0","article-title":"Absolute humidity and the seasonal onset of influenza in the continental United States","volume":"8","author":"Shaman","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0239729","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0239729","article-title":"Climate factors influence seasonal influenza activity in Bangkok, Thailand","volume":"15","author":"Suntronwong","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7439","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18147439","article-title":"Using mobile phone data to estimate the relationship between population flow and influenza infection pathways","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19650","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56104-8","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of influenza in China, 2005-2018","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0152310","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152310","article-title":"Temporal patterns of influenza A and B in tropical and temperate countries: what are the lessons for influenza vaccination?","volume":"11","author":"Caini","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.689","article-title":"Pandemic influenza: certain uncertainties","volume":"21","author":"Morens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev Med Virol."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e73724","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0073724","article-title":"Seasonal influenza vaccination coverage rate of target groups in selected cities and provinces in China by season (2009\/10 to 2011\/12)","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3249","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23440-1","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 outbreaks and interventions on influenza in China and the United States","volume":"12","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e4305","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1584","article-title":"Different transmission dynamics of COVID-19 and influenza suggest the relative efficiency of isolation\/quarantine and social distancing against COVID-19 in China","volume":"73","author":"Lei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"taaa064","DOI":"10.1093\/jtm\/taaa064","article-title":"Non-pharmaceutical interventions used for COVID-19 had a major impact on reducing influenza in China in 2020","volume":"27","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Travel Med."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e279","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(20)30090-6","article-title":"Impact assessment of non-pharmaceutical interventions against coronavirus disease 2019 and influenza in Hong Kong: an observational study","volume":"5","author":"Cowling","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2020-216526","article-title":"Decrease in hospital admissions for respiratory diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic: a nationwide claims study","volume":"76","author":"Huh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"728768","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.728768","article-title":"Changes in incidence of notifiable infectious diseases in China under the prevention and control measures of COVID-19","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Public Health."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2608.201229","article-title":"Decreased influenza incidence under COVID-19 control measures, Singapore","volume":"26","author":"Soo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-021-01627-8","article-title":"Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the prevalence of respiratory viruses in children with lower respiratory tract infections in China","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol J."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.15212\/ZOONOSES-2021-0005","article-title":"Rapid global spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) variant: spatiotemporal variation and public health impact","volume":"1","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zoonoses."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6713","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85987-9","article-title":"Forecasting influenza-like illness trends in Cameroon using Google Search Data","volume":"11","author":"Nsoesie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.05.016","article-title":"Using Google Trends and ambient temperature to predict seasonal influenza outbreaks","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Int."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e11537","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11537","article-title":"Analysis and forecasts for trends of COVID-19 in Pakistan using Bayesian models","volume":"9","author":"Feroze","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4641","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S337473","article-title":"Estimating the effects of the COVID-19 outbreak on the reductions in tuberculosis cases and the epidemiological trends in China: a causal impact analysis","volume":"14","author":"Ding","year":"2021","journal-title":"Infect Drug Resist."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2021.07.005","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus and influenza epidemics disappearance in Korea during the 2020-2021 season of COVID-19","volume":"110","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"994","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14568","article-title":"Forecasting the 2021 local burden of population alcoholrelated harms using Bayesian structural time-series","volume":"114","author":"McQuire","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2014.12.018","article-title":"Interrupted time series analysis in drug utilization research is increasing: systematic review and recommendations","volume":"68","author":"Jandoc","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Clin Epidemiol."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.08.028","article-title":"Epidemiological features and trends of influenza incidence in mainland China: a population-based surveillance study from 2005 to 2015","volume":"89","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.10.013","article-title":"Seasonal influenza vaccination in China: landscape of diverse regional reimbursement policy, and budget impact analysis","volume":"34","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/cky053","article-title":"Association between vaccination coverage decline and influenza incidence rise among Italian elderly","volume":"28","author":"Manzoli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Public Health."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.118","article-title":"The evolution of seasonal influenza viruses","volume":"16","author":"Petrova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol."},{"key":"B29","unstructured":"Analysis of temporal and spatial epidemic characteristics and short-term prediction of influenza in Sichuan Province from 2010 to 20181097102\n            ZhuXP\n            LiuLG\n            ChenXW\n            SunW\n            ZhangY\n            YuanH\n          J Prevent Med Inform.362020"},{"key":"B30","unstructured":"Surveillance analysis of influenza-like cases in 19 city-level sentinel hospitals for influenza surveillance in Guangzhou from 2003 to 2020610\n            WuD\n            CaoL\n            LiuYH\n            ChenYY\n            LiKB\n            LuJY\n          Pract Prevent Med.292022"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0142170","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0142170","article-title":"Strain interactions as a mechanism for dominant strain alternation and incidence oscillation in infectious diseases: seasonal influenza as a case Study","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2011.0309","article-title":"Essential epidemiological mechanisms underpinning the transmission dynamics of seasonal influenza","volume":"9","author":"Truscott","year":"2012","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface."},{"key":"B33","first-page":"3601","article-title":"NA genetic feature and drug resistant analysis of influenza A(H3N2) virus in Shaanxi Province during 2016-2017","volume":"27","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin J Health Lab Technol."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab485","article-title":"Quantifying the impact of COVID-19 nonpharmaceutical interventions on influenza transmission in the United States","volume":"224","author":"Qi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy443","article-title":"Risk factors and attack rates of seasonal influenza infection: results of the Southern Hemisphere influenza and vaccine effectiveness research and surveillance (SHIVERS) seroepidemiologic cohort study","volume":"219","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2015.12.013","article-title":"Concurrent epidemics of influenza A\/H3N2 and A\/H1N1pdm in Southern China: a serial cross-sectional study","volume":"72","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Infect."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6846e1","article-title":"Characteristics of hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients in a nationwide outbreak of E-cigarette, or vaping, product use-associated lung injury - United States, November 2019","volume":"68","author":"Chatham-Stephens","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-11-128","article-title":"Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) related to the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 among Chinese general population: a telephone survey","volume":"11","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70049-9","article-title":"The Xs and Y of immune responses to viral vaccines","volume":"10","author":"Klein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27285","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2012520117","article-title":"Gender differences in COVID-19 attitudes and behavior: panel evidence from eight countries","volume":"117","author":"Galasso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e74","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050074","article-title":"Social contacts and mixing patterns relevant to the spread of infectious diseases","volume":"5","author":"Mossong","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2112605118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2112605118","article-title":"Within and between classroom transmission patterns of seasonal influenza among primary school students in Matsumoto city, Japan","volume":"118","author":"Endo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa114","article-title":"Presence of influenza virus on touch surfaces in kindergartens and primary schools","volume":"222","author":"Fong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanwpc.2021.100282","article-title":"Co-benefits of nonpharmaceutical intervention against COVID-19 on infectious diseases in China: a large population-based observational study","volume":"17","author":"Xiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Reg Health West Pac."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa179","article-title":"Effects of school holidays on seasonal influenza in South Korea, 2014-2016","volume":"222","author":"Ryu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(09)70176-8","article-title":"Closure of schools during an influenza pandemic","volume":"9","author":"Cauchemez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.14348","article-title":"Association between statewide school closure and COVID-19 incidence and mortality in the US","volume":"324","author":"Auger","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.45221","article-title":"Knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards COVID-19 among Chinese residents during the rapid rise period of the COVID-19 outbreak: a quick online cross-sectional survey","volume":"16","author":"Zhong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Biol Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2022.863522\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T04:18:28Z","timestamp":1648613908000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2022.863522\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2022.863522"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2022.863522","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]]},"article-number":"863522"}}