{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T01:11:15Z","timestamp":1793322675386,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691625600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using population-based simulations and machine-learning algorithms to develop an adaptive restraint system that accounts for occupant anthropometry variations to further enhance safety balance throughout the whole population.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Two thousand MADYMO full frontal impact crash simulations at 35 mph using two validated vehicle\/restraint models representing a sedan and an SUV along with a parametric occupant model were conducted based on the maximal projection design of experiments, which considers varying occupant covariates (sex, stature, and body mass index) and vehicle restraint design variables (three for airbag, three for safety belt, and one for knee bolster). A Gaussian-process-based surrogate model was trained to rapidly predict occupant injury risks and the associated uncertainties. An optimization framework was formulated to seek the optimal adaptive restraint design policy that minimizes the population injury risk across a wide range of occupant sizes and shapes while maintaining a low difference in injury risks among different occupant subgroups. The effectiveness of the proposed method was tested by comparing the population-wise injury risks under the adaptive design policy and the traditional state-of-the-art design.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared to the traditional state-of-the-art design for midsize males, the optimal design policy shows the potential to further reduce the joint injury risk (combining head, chest, and lower extremity injury risks) among the whole population in the sedan and SUV models. Specifically, the two subgroups of vulnerable occupants including tall obese males and short obese females had higher reductions in injury risks.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study lays out a method to adaptively adjust vehicle restraint systems to improve safety balance. This is the first study where population-based crash simulations and machine-learning methods are used to optimize adaptive restraint designs for a diverse population. Nevertheless, this study shows the high injury risks associated with obese and female occupants, which can be mitigated via restraint adaptability.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1202970","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T11:18:53Z","timestamp":1691666333000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Adaptive restraint design for a diverse population through machine learning"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Wenbo","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiacheng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jingwen","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judy","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Siasoco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rongrong","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Mccoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"NHTSATNHTSA\n          Newly Released Estimates Show Traffic Fatalities Reached a 16-Year High in 2021.2020"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-200206000-00015","article-title":"Injury rates among restrained drivers in motor vehicle collisions: the role of body habitus","volume":"52","author":"Moran","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S85","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2017.1298096","article-title":"Does unbelted safety requirement affect protection for belted occupants?","volume":"18","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Traffic Inj Prev"},{"key":"B4","article-title":"The effect of occupant characteristics on injury risk and the development of active-adaptive restraint systems","author":"McCarthy","year":"2001","journal-title":"SAE Technical Paper"},{"key":"B5","article-title":"Method to estimate the field effectiveness of an automatic braking system in combination with an adaptive restraint system in frontal crashes","volume-title":"Proceedings of 22nd International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles","author":"Re\u00dfle","year":"2011"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4271\/2007-01-1500","article-title":"The numerical study for the adaptive restraint system","author":"Shin","year":"2007","journal-title":"SAE Technical Paper"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"960662","DOI":"10.4271\/960662","article-title":"Restraint force optimization for a smart restraint system","author":"Miller","year":"1996","journal-title":"SAE Technical Paper"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"MADYMO Reference Manual Release 7.7","year":"2017"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"MADYMO Utilities Manual Release 7.7","year":"2017"},{"key":"B10","first-page":"12","article-title":"Occupant classification for an adaptive restraint system: the methodology and benefits in terms of injury reduction","author":"Untaroiu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IRCOBI Conference Proceedings-International Research Council on the Biomechanics of Injury"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1504\/IJVS.2015.074373","article-title":"Optimisation study of occupant restraint system concerning variations in occupant size and crash severity in frontal collisions","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Veh Saf"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S31","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2021.1895989","article-title":"Restraint systems considering occupant diversity and pre-crash posture","volume":"21","author":"Boyle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Traffic Inj Prev"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.5705\/ss.2012.364","article-title":"Penalized q-learning for dynamic treatment regimens","volume":"25","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stat Sin"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.2012.695674","article-title":"Estimating individualized treatment rules using outcome weighted learning","volume":"107","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Am Stat Assoc"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cct.2013.09.009","article-title":"Bayesian two-step Lasso strategy for biomarker selection in personalized medicine development for time-to-event endpoints","volume":"36","author":"Gu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Contemp Clin Trials"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1109\/SBEC.1996.493162","article-title":"The development of the GEBOD program","author":"Cheng","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 1996 Fifteenth Southern Biomedical Engineering Conference"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1518\/0018720024496917","article-title":"statistical method for predicting automobile driving posture","volume":"44","author":"Reed","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2013.796043","article-title":"Optimizing the rear seat environment for older children, adults, and infants","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Traffic Inj Prev"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/0047-259X(91)90062-7","article-title":"Asymptotic properties of a maximum likelihood estimator with data from a Gaussian process","volume":"36","author":"Ying","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Multivar Anal"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S97S105","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2019.1581926","article-title":"Frontal crash simulations using parametric human models representing a diverse population","volume":"20","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Traffic Inj Prev"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/asv002","article-title":"Maximum projection designs for computer experiments","volume":"102","author":"Joseph","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"B22","first-page":"63","article-title":"Gaussian processes in machine learning","volume-title":"Summer School on Machine Learning","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2003"},{"key":"B23","first-page":"31","article-title":"Gpytorch: Blackbox matrix-matrix Gaussian process inference with GPU acceleration","author":"Gardner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv Neural Inf Process Syst"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1412.6980","article-title":"Adam: a method for stochastic optimization","author":"Kingma","year":"2014","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"B25","article-title":"Autograd: effortless gradients in Numpy","volume-title":"ICML 2015 AutoML workshop","author":"Maclaurin","year":"2015"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2017.06.015","article-title":"An automated method to morph finite element whole-body human models with a wide range of stature and body shape for both men and women","volume":"60","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Biomech"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1202970\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T11:19:10Z","timestamp":1691666350000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1202970\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"references-count":26,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1202970"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1202970","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"article-number":"1202970"}}