{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T02:14:26Z","timestamp":1790388866572,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":209,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,3]],"date-time":"2024-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Facemasks were widely mandated during the recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Especially the use by the general population is associated with a higher risk of improper handling of the mask and contamination and potential adverse microbiological consequences.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We investigated and quantified bacterial accumulation in facemasks used by the general population, using 16S rRNA (Sanger Sequencing), culture and biochemical analysis along with Rose Bengal staining. Additionally, a systematic overview of the literature on face mask contamination was undertaken.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>We found an average bacterial load of 4.24 \u00d7 10<jats:sup>4<\/jats:sup> CFU recovered\/mask, with a maximum load of 2.85 \u00d7 10<jats:sup>5<\/jats:sup> CFU. This maximum is 310 times higher than the limit value for contamination of ventilation system outlet surfaces specified by the German standard VDI 6022. Biochemical and molecular identification predominantly found <jats:italic>Staphylococcus species<\/jats:italic> (80%), including <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>, along with endospore-forming Bacillus spp. Literature reports also indicate contamination of masks by bacterial and fungal opportunists of the genera <jats:italic>Acinetobacter, Aspergillus, Alternaria, Bacillus, Cadosporium, Candida, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Enterococcus, Klebsiella<\/jats:italic> (including <jats:italic>K. pneumoniae<\/jats:italic>), <jats:italic>Micrococcus, Microsporum, Mucor, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus<\/jats:italic>. Bacterial counts increase linearly with wearing duration.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Prolonged use may affect the skin and respiratory microbiomes, promoting consequential eye, skin, oral and airway conditions. These aspects underscore the urgent need for further research and a risk-benefit analysis in respect of mask use, particularly given their unproven efficacy in disrupting the transmission of respiratory viruses and their adverse social consequences.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1460981","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,3]],"date-time":"2024-12-03T06:31:57Z","timestamp":1733207517000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The bacterial burden of worn face masks\u2014observational research and literature review"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Kisielinski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Wojtasik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Zalewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David M.","family":"Livermore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agata","family":"Jurczak-Kurek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2022.09.020","article-title":"Face masking for children - time to 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