{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T03:14:06Z","timestamp":1793157246393,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,12]],"date-time":"2024-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733961600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adenoid hypertrophy (AH) is characterized by pathological hyperplasia of the nasopharyngeal tonsils, a component of Waldryer\u2019s ring, which represents the first immune defense of the upper respiratory tract. The pathogenic factors contributing to AH remain to be comprehensively investigated to date. Although some studies suggest that environmental exposure to smoke and allergens, respiratory tract infections, and hormonal influences likely contribute to the development of AH, further research is necessary for fully elucidating the effects of these factors on the onset and progression of AH. AH is the most common cause of airway obstruction in the pediatric population, with a prevalence rate of 49.7%, and is frequently accompanied by various comorbidities. These patients often present with distinctive dental characteristics, including increased overjet, posterior crossbite, a high palatal plane, narrow dental arches, and facial features characterized by disproportionate alterations in facial height, commonly referred to as \u201cadenoid facies.\u201d Individuals with adenoid facies frequently display abnormal breathing patterns, especially mouth breathing. The present review summarizes the findings of research articles sourced from PubMed, IEEE, and Web of Science over the last 20\u202fyears up to September 2024. Several high-quality studies screened using the PICOPS framework reported that perioral muscle dysfunction, dental and skeletal malocclusions, and upper airway obstruction caused by AH are interdependent issues and mutually exacerbate one another. The review summarizes the potential associations and mechanisms linking AH, mouth breathing, and the subsequent development of adenoid facies in children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1494517","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,12]],"date-time":"2024-12-12T00:10:43Z","timestamp":1733962243000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Adenoid facies: a long-term vicious cycle of mouth breathing, adenoid hypertrophy, and atypical craniofacial development"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongwei","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-020-03203-4","article-title":"Evaluation of adenoid hypertrophy with ultrasonography","volume":"87","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J Pediatr"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.23812\/21-1supp2-7","article-title":"Risk factors for recurrent acute otitis media: a real-life clinical experience","volume":"35","author":"Ciprandi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Biol Regul Homeost Agents"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40463-020-0404-1","article-title":"Risk factors of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children","volume":"49","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Otolaryngol head Neck Surg = Le J d'oto-rhino-laryngologie et de chirurgie cervico-faciale"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-015-0576-3","article-title":"Nasal Mucociliary clearance in adenoid hypertrophy and otitis media with effusion","volume":"15","author":"Yaz\u0131c\u0131","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Allergy Asthma Rep"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16183235","article-title":"Risk factors for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children: state of the art","volume":"16","author":"Gulotta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929165","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.929165","article-title":"The impact of mouth breathing on dentofacial development: a concise review","volume":"10","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.14639\/0392-100X-770","article-title":"Association between oral habits, mouth breathing and malocclusion","volume":"36","author":"Grippaudo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta otorhinolaryngologica Italica: organo ufficiale della Societa italiana di otorinolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale"},{"key":"ref8","first-page":"59","article-title":"Oral breathing and dental malocclusions","volume":"10","author":"Zicari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Paediatr Dent"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R50","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddv228","article-title":"New insights into craniofacial malformations","volume":"24","author":"Twigg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum Mol Genet"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2005.088484","article-title":"Association between allergic rhinitis, bottle feeding, non-nutritive sucking habits, and malocclusion in the primary dentition","volume":"91","author":"V\u00e1zquez-Nava","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.23804\/ejpd.2021.22.04.5","article-title":"Open bite and atypical swallowing: orthodontic treatment, speech therapy or both? 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