{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T01:35:03Z","timestamp":1772588103193,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741564800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that develops after being exposed to trauma, such as experiencing or witnessing life-threatening events, including war and other natural disasters. Despite the high levels of conflict, little attention has been given to post-traumatic stress disorder, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and its associated factors among internally displaced people in Northwest Ethiopia.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A cross-sectional study design was employed from June to July 2022 in Northwest Ethiopia among internally displaced people. Simple random sampling was used to recruit 410 study participants. The standard tools used in this study included the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PLC-5), Kessler-10, and Oslo Social Support Scale to assess various variables. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder. Statistically significant factors were selected at a 95% confidence interval (CI) with adjusted odds ratio (AOR).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among internally displaced people was 54.3%, with a 95% CI (49.5, 59.3). Current substance use [AOR 95% CI: 2.01(1.16, 3.48)]; living arrangements, such as living alone or with non-relatives [AOR\u202f=\u202f2.13; 95% CI (1.17, 3.86) and AOR\u202f=\u202f2.39; 95% CI: (1.21, 4. 70), respectively]; being violated [AOR\u202f=\u202f2.49; 95% CI: (1.26, 4.94)]; and psychological distress [AOR\u202f=\u202f3.21; 95% CI: (4.35, 9.34)] were significantly associated with post-traumatic stress disorder.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among internally displaced people was high. Therefore, stakeholders should provide immediate interventions that include further assessments using diagnostic criteria. In addition, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing psychotherapy along with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors as psycho-pharmacological treatment are recommended. Furthermore, efforts should be made to reduce the identified risk factors to improve outcomes for individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1386566","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T13:02:05Z","timestamp":1741611725000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Post-traumatic stress disorder and its associated factors among internally displaced people due to conflict in Northwest Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Mamaru","family":"Melkam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Girmaw","family":"Medfu Takelle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Getasew","family":"Kibralew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Girum","family":"Nakie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1163\/19426720-01004006","article-title":"The guiding principles on internal displacement: an innovation in international standard setting","volume":"10","author":"Cohen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Glob Gov"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-66884-6_4","article-title":"The adequacy of law and policy frameworks on internal displacement in Ethiopia: a critical appraisal","volume-title":"National Protection of internally displaced persons in Africa","author":"Meskele","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5: American psychiatric association","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2017.02.008","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in internally displaced people of Colombia: an ecological study","volume":"16","author":"Lagos-Gallego","year":"2017","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/14372-000","volume-title":"Treating PTSD with cognitive-behavioral therapies: Interventions that work","author":"Monson","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0b013e3181d61258","article-title":"A systematic review of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder among refugees and asylum-seekers","volume":"198","author":"Crumlish","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Nerv Ment Dis"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28057","DOI":"10.3402\/ejpt.v7.28057","article-title":"Challenging future, challenging past: the relationship of social integration and psychological impairment in traumatized refugees","volume":"7","author":"Schick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e68","DOI":"10.1192\/bjo.2020.54","article-title":"Anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in refugees resettling in high-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Henkelmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"BJPsych open"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003090","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003090","article-title":"National and regional prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Ng","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.1132","article-title":"Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"302","author":"Steel","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S338823","article-title":"About six in ten survivors of the november 2020 Maikadra massacre suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"15","author":"Ali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol Res Behav Manag"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13692-6","article-title":"Common mental disorders in postconflict settings","volume":"361","author":"De Jong","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s12207-014-9191-1","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM-5: new criteria, new measures, and implications for assessment","volume":"7","author":"Weathers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol Injury Law"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.5771\/0943-7444-2017-8-668","article-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM)","volume":"44","author":"Cooper","year":"2018","journal-title":"Knowledge Organ"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2017.1396580","article-title":"Event centrality influences posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms via core beliefs in internally displaced older adults","volume":"23","author":"Chukwuorji","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Ment Health"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S267307","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among internally displaced people in South Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study","volume":"16","author":"Madoro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3109\/13651501.2014.961930","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian refugees in Turkey: a cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Alpak","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7358(03)00033-3","article-title":"Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"23","author":"Brewin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462011000200010","article-title":"Common mental disorders in Petr\u00f3polis-RJ: a challenge to integrate mental health into primary care strategies","volume":"33","author":"Fortes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brazilian J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2260","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291717000708","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in the world mental health surveys","volume":"47","author":"Koenen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1752-1505-7-6","article-title":"Rwanda\u2013lasting imprints of a genocide: trauma, mental health and psychosocial conditions in survivors, former prisoners and their children","volume":"7","author":"Rieder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Confl Heal"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1336665","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1336665","article-title":"Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and associated factors among displaced people in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Andualem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.5812\/ijpbs.66124","article-title":"Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Iranian population following disasters and wars: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"1","author":"Sepahvand","year":"2019","journal-title":"Iranian J Psychiatry Behav Sci"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14121537","article-title":"A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults and children after earthquakes","volume":"14","author":"Tang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.03.039","article-title":"Human-initiated disaster, social disorganization and post-traumatic stress disorder above Nigeria\u2019s oil basins","volume":"71","author":"Beiser","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S462342","article-title":"Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression and associated factors among internally displaced persons in Al-Galgala, Sudan","volume":"20","author":"Mohamed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-2480-1","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder, psychiatric comorbidities and associated factors among refugees in Nakivale camp in southwestern Uganda","volume":"20","author":"Bapolisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e028550","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2018-028550","article-title":"Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among Koshe landslide survivors, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a community-based, cross-sectional study","volume":"9","author":"Asnakew","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref29","article-title":"The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) \u2013 Standard [Measurement instrument]","author":"Weathers","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1097\/01.nmd.0000142029.96703.57","article-title":"Determinants of postconflict symptoms in Albanian Kosovars","volume":"192","author":"Eytan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Nerv Ment Dis"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-012-0494-9","article-title":"Mental and physical health in Rwanda 14 years after the genocide","volume":"47","author":"Munyandamutsa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567367","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.567367","article-title":"Individual differences, economic stability, and fear of contagion as risk factors for PTSD symptoms in the COVID-19 emergency","volume":"11","author":"Di Crosta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2011.07.004","article-title":"Understanding the relationship of perceived social support to post-trauma cognitions and posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"25","author":"Robinaugh","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Anxiety Disord"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291716002361","article-title":"The longitudinal relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder and perceived social support in survivors of traumatic injury","volume":"47","author":"Nickerson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1080\/10538710903035263","article-title":"Child sexual abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance use: predictors of revictimization in adult sexual assault survivors","volume":"18","author":"Ullman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Child Sex Abus"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13494","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph121013494","article-title":"Probable post traumatic stress disorder in Kenya and its associated risk factors: a cross-sectional household survey","volume":"12","author":"Jenkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-244X-8-38","article-title":"Factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression amongst internally displaced persons in northern Uganda","volume":"8","author":"Roberts","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2019.05.026","article-title":"Stigma and acceptance of Sierra Leone\u2019s child soldiers: a prospective longitudinal study of adult mental health and social functioning","volume":"59","author":"Betancourt","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2016.11.011","article-title":"Combat experience and problem drinking in veterans: exploring the roles of PTSD, coping motives, and perceived stigma","volume":"66","author":"Miller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7176.116232","article-title":"How to calculate sample size for different study designs in medical research?","volume":"35","author":"Charan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J Psychol Med"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/10691898.2010.11889474","article-title":"A note on confidence interval estimation and margin of error","volume":"18","author":"Gilliland","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Stat Educ"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e122","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0000000000002250","article-title":"Long-term post-traumatic stress disorder after Orthopaedic injury: prevalence and risk factors","volume":"36","author":"LaRose","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Orthop Trauma"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2009.06.020","article-title":"Detecting postnatal common mental disorders in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: validation of the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale and Kessler scales","volume":"122","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.2147\/HIV.S360431","article-title":"Family and social support among patients on anti-retroviral therapy in west Wollega zone public hospitals, Western Ethiopia: a facility-based cross-sectional study","volume":"14","author":"Desalegn","year":"2022","journal-title":"HIV\/AIDS (Auckland, NZ)"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20503121231160884","DOI":"10.1177\/20503121231160884","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adults exposed to stress in Ethiopia: a meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"11","author":"Melkam","year":"2023","journal-title":"SAGE Open Medicine"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e017214","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-017214","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in adult victims of cluster munitions in Lebanon: a 10-year longitudinal study","volume":"7","author":"Fares","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref47","volume-title":"Prevalence of violence and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder among victims of ethno-religious conflict in","author":"Tagurum","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13031-019-0238-5","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among Syrian refugees residing in the Kurdistan region of Iraq","volume":"13","author":"Mahmood","year":"2019","journal-title":"Confl Heal"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2014.00127","article-title":"Psycho-trauma, psychosocial adjustment, and symptomatic post-traumatic stress disorder among internally displaced persons in Kaduna, Northwestern Nigeria","volume":"5","author":"Sheikh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4172\/2324-8947.1000122","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder in internally displaced people subjected to displacement by armed forces","volume":"3","author":"Essizoglu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Trauma Stress Disor Treat"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00241","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms resulting from torture and other traumatic events among Syrian Kurdish refugees in Kurdistan region, Iraq","volume":"8","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-018-0229-8","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder among survivors of road traffic accidents in Ethiopia","volume":"12","author":"Yohannes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Ment Heal Syst"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2006.163.4.652","article-title":"Trauma, PTSD, and substance use disorders: findings from the Australian National Survey of mental health and well-being","volume":"163","author":"Mills","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0b013e3282f0ffd9","article-title":"Clinical challenges in the treatment of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and substance abuse","volume":"20","author":"Sch\u00e4fer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s11126-020-09735-4","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and its correlates among people living with HIV in southern Ethiopia, an institutionally based cross-sectional study","volume":"91","author":"Duko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry Q"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00020","article-title":"Long-term impact of war, civil war, and persecution in civilian populations\u2014conflict and post-traumatic stress in African communities","volume":"11","author":"Musisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12873-020-00348-5","article-title":"Prevalence and determinants of post-traumatic stress disorder among road traffic accident survivors: a prospective survey at selected hospitals in southern Ethiopia","volume":"20","author":"Bedaso","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Emerg Med"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20837","article-title":"Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions","volume":"28","author":"Wilkins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depress Anxiety"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E191","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.110829","article-title":"Optimal cut-off score for diagnosing depression with the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9): a meta-analysis","volume":"184","author":"Manea","year":"2012","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref60","volume-title":"Validation of the alcohol, smoking and substance involvement screening test (ASSIST) and pilot brief intervention [electronic resource]: A technical report of phase II findings of the WHO ASSIST project","author":"Humeniuk","year":"2006"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1386566\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T13:02:10Z","timestamp":1741611730000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1386566\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"references-count":60,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1386566"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1386566","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"article-number":"1386566"}}