{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T06:31:34Z","timestamp":1782973894653,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":215,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]],"date-time":"2025-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739836800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Context<\/jats:title><jats:p>American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIANs) are historically disadvantaged, losing 20 million (95%) of their population largely through epidemics since 1,520 and continuing lower overall vaccination coverage than other races. Determinants of this lower coverage are underexamined.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Among peer-reviewed relevant articles since 1968, 39 studied AIANs solely; 47 drew general population samples, including AIANs. We employed rigorous economic definitions and framework of Individual Decision-Making Under Uncertainty. The Social-Ecological model identified determinants and mechanisms at five levels.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title><jats:p>Individual-level determinants include: (1) vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) and vaccine knowledge; (2) vaccine safety, efficacy, moral hazard beliefs; (3) preferences; (4) income and post-subsidy costs. Interpersonal-level determinants include others\u2019 knowledge and preferences. Organizational-level characteristics of Indian Health Service, Tribal, Urban Indian (IHS\/T\/U) facilities include: (1) supply of vaccine products, providers, services; (2) provider cultural competency, vaccine recommendations, standing orders; (3) patient reminder\/recall. Community-level characteristics include: (1) socioeconomics and geographics; (2) information infrastructure; (3) cultural values, practices, languages; (4) historical epidemic knowledge; (5) historical harms thus distrust in government, health system, science. Societal-level determinants include: (1) federal recognition and entitlements; (2) tribal self-determination; (3) state Medicaid enrollment; (4) structural racism.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Policy recommendations<\/jats:title><jats:p>Tribal interventions may (1) increase AIANs\u2019 knowledge about VPDs, vaccines, Medicaid enrollment; (2) design risk\/cost\u2013benefit calculations using scientific objective probabilities of vaccine safety and efficacy; (3) tailor messages to epidemic histories, narratives, values; (4) outreach by trusted messengers. I\/T\/U organizational interventions may reduce transportation costs while increasing provider supplies, cultural competency, and vaccine standing orders. Federal policies may increase IHS funding, tribal infrastructure, and AIAN data representativeness while eliminating structural racism and generational trauma.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This article contributes to literature and practice. It is the first multidisciplinary, comprehensive overview of multi-level determinants and mechanisms of AIAN vaccination. Its findings highlight the gaps and limitations of laws and policies impacting AIAN vaccination. It recommends future research, culturally-appropriate interventions, and policies to close the gap to enhance AIAN vaccination and healing.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1490286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]],"date-time":"2025-02-18T15:08:31Z","timestamp":1739891311000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Multi-level determinants of vaccination of the American Indian and Alaska Native population: a comprehensive overview"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Junying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rashmi","family":"Jaggad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janis E.","family":"Campbell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pallab K.","family":"Ghosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James R.","family":"Kennedye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tauqeer","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","first-page":"33","article-title":"A brief history of vaccines: smallpox to the present","author":"Hsu","year":"2013","journal-title":"S. D. Med."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2873","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2021.1911204","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine platforms: delivering on a promise?","volume":"17","author":"Verdecia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin Immunother"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). Our world InData.org","author":"Mathieu","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjms.2022.01.005","article-title":"A historical perspective of healthcare disparity and infectious disease in the native American population","volume":"363","author":"Ehrenpreis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref5","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref6","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-022-00300-x","article-title":"Narratives from African American\/Black, American Indian\/Alaska native, and Hispanic\/Latinx community members in Arizona to enhance COVID-19 vaccine and vaccination uptake","volume":"46","author":"Ignacio","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Behav Med"},{"key":"ref8","year":""},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-023-00443-5","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among American Indian and Alaska native college students: the roles of discrimination, historical trauma, and healthcare system distrust","volume":"47","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Behav Med"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1007\/s11013-023-09835-3","article-title":"Continuum of trauma: fear and mistrust of institutions in communities of color during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"48","author":"V\u00e1zquez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cult Med Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2011.628913","article-title":"Historical trauma among indigenous peoples of the Americas: concepts, research, and clinical considerations","volume":"43","author":"Brave Heart","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Psychoactive Drugs"},{"key":"ref12","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref13","year":""},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"11","article-title":"Deaths: leading causes for 2020","volume":"72","author":"Curtin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Natl Vital Stat Rep"},{"key":"ref15","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref16","volume-title":"Microeconomic theory","author":"Mas-Colell","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref17","volume-title":"Health economics","author":"Hurley","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.2307\/2951565","article-title":"A more robust definition of subjective probability","volume":"60","author":"Machina","year":"1992","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref19","volume-title":"Microeconomic theory","author":"Mas-Colell","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref20","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S263","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301682","article-title":"American Indian health policy: historical trends and contemporary issues","volume":"104","author":"Warne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Public Health."},{"key":"ref22","volume-title":"Knowledge How","author":"Pavese","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2343325","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.43325","article-title":"Human papillomavirus awareness by educational level and by race and ethnicity","volume":"6","author":"Stephens","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpag.2011.11.012","article-title":"Human papillomavirus vaccine policies among American Indian tribes in Washington state","volume":"25","author":"Duvall","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.2011.3417","article-title":"Human papillomavirus vaccination practices among providers in Indian Health Service, tribal and urban Indian healthcare facilities","volume":"21","author":"Jim","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Women's Health"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3728","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043728","article-title":"Traditional Knowledge Holders\u2019 Perspective of COVID-19","volume":"20","author":"Kahn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref27","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref28","author":"Newland","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref29","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-022-00379-2","article-title":"Associations between COVID-19 vaccine uptake, race\/ethnicity, and political party affiliation","volume":"46","author":"Andersen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Behav Med"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1353\/jaie.2018.a798602","article-title":"American Indian boarding schools: what went wrong? What is going right?","volume":"57","author":"Reyhner","year":"2018","journal-title":"J American Indian Educ"},{"key":"ref32","volume-title":"About adverse childhood experiences [internet]. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref33","volume-title":"Boarding schools and Western education-related trauma","author":"Cote","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref34","year":""},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2130479","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.30479","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in rates of COVID-19\u2013associated hospitalization, intensive care unit admission, and in-hospital death in the United States from march 2020 to February 2021","volume":"4","author":"Acosta","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-023-01882-1","article-title":"Covid-19 vaccine hesitancy and under-vaccination among marginalized populations in the United States and Canada: a scoping review","author":"Newman","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Racial Ethnic Health Disparities"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1089\/heq.2018.0028","article-title":"Factors associated with human papillomavirus vaccination among diverse adolescents in a region with low human papillomavirus vaccination rates","volume":"2","author":"Kepka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Equity."},{"key":"ref38","first-page":"415","article-title":"HPV vaccine readiness among American Indian college students","volume":"21","author":"Hodge","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ethn Dis"},{"key":"ref39","volume-title":"General best practice guidelines for immunization: Best practices guidance of the advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP)","author":"Kroger","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1192748","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1192748","article-title":"County-level barriers in the COVID-19 vaccine coverage index and their associations with willingness to receive the COVID-19 vaccine across racial\/ethnic groups in the U.S. front","volume":"11","author":"Fernandez","year":"2023","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20010031","article-title":"Building trust and awareness to increase AZ native nation participation in COVID-19 vaccines","volume":"20","author":"Sears","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.07.051","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy cannot fully explain disparities in vaccination coverage across the contiguous United States","volume":"40","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2023.05.056","article-title":"Vaccination, human mobility, and COVID-19 health outcomes: empirical comparison before and during the outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (omicron) variant","volume":"41","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668299","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.668299","article-title":"Vaccine hesitancy is a barrier to achieving equitable herd immunity among racial minorities","volume":"8","author":"Gerretsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Med"},{"key":"ref45","volume-title":"Religious Belief","year":""},{"key":"ref46","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-817204-9.00018-4","volume-title":"The science of religion, spirituality, and existentialism","author":"Engstrom","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29256","DOI":"10.3402\/ijch.v74.29256","article-title":"Lower respiratory tract infection hospitalizations among American Indian\/Alaska native children and the general United States child population","volume":"74","author":"Foote","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Circumpolar Health"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2023.102200","article-title":"Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: 2020 California health interview survey","volume":"33","author":"Moon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.02.034","article-title":"Factors associated with human papillomavirus vaccine-series initiation and healthcare provider recommendation in US adolescent females: 2007 National Survey of Children's health","volume":"30","author":"Lau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref51","volume-title":"COVID-19 vaccines and people with Cancer","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref52","volume-title":"Immunity Types","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s11764-013-0319-1","article-title":"Physician visits and preventive care among Asian American and Pacific islander long-term survivors of colorectal cancer, USA, 1996-2006","volume":"8","author":"Steele","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Cancer Surviv"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2011.04.012","article-title":"Parents' acceptance of adolescent immunizations outside of the traditional medical home","volume":"49","author":"Clevenger","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.158.11.1077","article-title":"Efficacy of a pediatric emergency department\u2013based influenza vaccination program","volume":"158","author":"Pappano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med"},{"key":"ref56","volume-title":"American Indian\/Alaska Native Health","year":""},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2020.101292","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of vaccine attitudes and behaviors in a cohort of low-income mothers","volume":"21","author":"Gilbert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-023-00393-y","article-title":"Social and structural determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake among racial and ethnic groups","volume":"46","author":"Pe\u00f1a","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Behav Med"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2127582","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.27582","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine decision-making factors in racial and ethnic minority communities in Los Angeles, California","volume":"4","author":"Carson","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11179-9","article-title":"Structural inequities in seasonal influenza vaccination rates","volume":"21","author":"Brewer","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/9.2.185","article-title":"The elasticity of demand for health care in Burkina Faso: differences across age and income groups","volume":"9","author":"Sauerborn","year":"1994","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan"},{"key":"ref62","volume-title":"Minimum value and affordability","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref63","volume-title":"Employer shared responsibility provisions","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref64","year":""},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2020.101163","article-title":"Interventions to increase uptake of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination in minority populations: a systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Lott","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-15318-2","article-title":"Examining multilevel influences on parental HPV vaccine hesitancy among multiethnic communities in Los Angeles: a qualitative analysis","volume":"23","author":"Shin","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"n2168","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n2168","article-title":"COVID-19: how native Americans led the way in the US vaccination effort","volume":"374","author":"Silberner","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.japh.2021.03.020","article-title":"Health information technology utilization and impact on COVID-19 vaccination","volume":"61","author":"Prescott","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Am Pharm Assoc"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1177\/003335491012500314","article-title":"Achievement of healthy people 2010 objective for adult pneumococcal vaccination in an American Indian community","volume":"125","author":"Traeger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"key":"ref70","year":""},{"key":"ref71","volume-title":"Indian Health Service: Agency faces ongoing challenges filling provider vacancies|U.S. GAO","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref72","volume-title":"Indian Health Service: Agency Faces Ongoing Challenges Filling Provider Vacancies","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref73","volume-title":"Advance Appropriations for the Indian Health Service: Issues and Options for Congress","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref74","volume-title":"Indian Health Service must act to lower staff physician vacancies","author":"Robeznieks","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref75","volume-title":"Medicaid Coverage of Community Health Worker Services","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref76","volume-title":"Chapter 16-community health representatives program","year":""},{"key":"ref77","volume-title":"Fact sheet-community health representatives","year":""},{"key":"ref78","volume-title":"The 2009 H1N1 Influenza Vaccination Campaign: Summary of a Workshop Series","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref79","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref80","volume-title":"IHS Releases COVID-19 Pandemic Vaccine Plan","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2403","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2113296","article-title":"Covid-19 vaccination in American Indians and Alaska natives\u2014lessons from effective community responses","volume":"385","author":"Foxworth","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref82","volume-title":"Indian Health Service relief funding and agency response to COVID-19 pandemic","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref83","volume-title":"About-Mission statement","year":""},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2021.103506","article-title":"Examining spatiotemporal evolution of racial\/ethnic disparities in human mobility and COVID-19 health outcomes: evidence from the contiguous United States","volume":"76","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain Cities Soc"},{"key":"ref85","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref86","volume-title":"IHS announces vaccine strategy: Every patient will be offered a vaccine When Appropriate","author":"Christensen","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1177\/10755470211056990","article-title":"Factors that influence risk perceptions and successful COVID-19 vaccination communication campaigns with American Indians","volume":"44","author":"Boyd","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Commun"},{"key":"ref88","first-page":"155","volume-title":"Strategies for cultural competency in Indian health care","author":"Dixon","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref89","first-page":"730","volume-title":"COVID-19 cases, hospitalizations, and deaths among American Indian or Alaska native persons\u2014Alaska, 2020\u20132021","author":"Ward","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1017\/amj.2022.14","article-title":"Self-determined health: reevaluating current systems and funding for native American health care","volume":"48","author":"Meadows","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Law Med"},{"key":"ref91","volume-title":"Physician\u2019s orders","year":""},{"key":"ref92","first-page":"13","article-title":"Developing standing orders to help your team work to the highest level","volume":"25","author":"Leubner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fam Pract Manag"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2015.10.003","article-title":"State law and standing orders for immunization services","volume":"50","author":"Stewart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"ref94","volume-title":"Immunizations: Pneumococcal","year":""},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2017.01.024","article-title":"Human papillomavirus vaccine uptake: increase for American Indian adolescents, 2013-2015","volume":"53","author":"Jacobs-Wingo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-022-01662-y","article-title":"HPV vaccination coverage and factors among American Indians in Cherokee nation","volume":"34","author":"Gopalani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref97","article-title":"General Best Practice Guidelines for Immunization","volume-title":"Best Practices Guidance.","author":"Kroger","year":""},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-023-01576-8","article-title":"Perception of barriers to and factors associated with HPV vaccination among parents of American Indian adolescents in the Cherokee nation","volume":"11","author":"Martinez","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Racial Ethn Health Disparities"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedhc.2013.01.002","article-title":"A quality improvement initiative to increase HPV vaccine rates using an educational and reminder strategy with parents of preteen girls","volume":"28","author":"Cassidy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Pediatr Health Care"},{"key":"ref100","volume-title":"BIE Vaccination Forum","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1007\/s13187-013-0468-y","article-title":"HPV knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs among Northern Plains American Indian adolescents, parents, young adults, and health professionals","volume":"28","author":"Schmidt-Grimminger","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Canc Educ"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1177\/00333549231214784","article-title":"School-located vaccine clinics: an effective strategy for expanding access to COVID-19 vaccines in Los Angeles County","volume":"139","author":"Biederman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"key":"ref103","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6505a1","article-title":"Influenza-Related Hospitalizations and Poverty Levels - United States, 2010-2012","volume":"65","author":"Hadler","year":"2016","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7109a2","article-title":"Disparities in COVID-19 vaccination coverage between urban and rural counties\u2014United States, December 14, 2020\u2013January 31, 2022","volume":"71","author":"Saelee","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR"},{"key":"ref106","volume-title":"About us","year":""},{"key":"ref107","volume-title":"Rural COVID-19 Innovations","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocaa078","article-title":"Impact of the digital divide in the age of COVID-19","volume":"27","author":"Ramsetty","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Med Inform Assoc"},{"key":"ref109","volume-title":"Tribal and native American issues","year":""},{"key":"ref110","volume-title":"The digital divide dilemma: Preserving native American culture while increasing access to information technology on reservations","author":"Bissell","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref111","volume-title":"Telecommunications: Additional coordination and performance measurement needed for high-speed internet access programs on tribal lands","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e504","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(20)30227-2","article-title":"The online anti-vaccine movement in the age of COVID-19","volume":"2","author":"Burki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0272089","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0272089","article-title":"Din\u00e9 Navajo resilience to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"17","author":"Denetclaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2022.100212","article-title":"A qualitative study of COVID-19 vaccine decision making among urban native Americans","volume":"12","author":"Epperson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115400","article-title":"\u201cWe need to protect each other\u201d: COVID-19 vaccination intentions and concerns among racialized minority and indigenous peoples in Canada","volume":"313","author":"Manca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2129827","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2022.2129827","article-title":"A qualitative investigation of facilitators and barriers to accessing COVID-19 vaccines among racialized and indigenous peoples in Canada","volume":"18","author":"Aylsworth","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin Immunother"},{"key":"ref117","volume-title":"What is a Federal Indian Reservation?","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.2307\/3479850","article-title":"Judicial review of Indian treaty abrogation: \"as Long as water flows, or grass grows upon the earth\". How Long a time is that?","volume":"63","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1975","journal-title":"Calif L Rev"},{"key":"ref119","volume-title":"Treaty One Nation and Government of Canada Commemorate 150th Anniversary of Treaty No. 1","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref120","volume-title":"As long as the sun shines and water flows: A reader in Canadian native studies","author":"Lussier","year":"1983"},{"key":"ref121","volume-title":"Dawes act","year":"1887"},{"key":"ref122","volume-title":"Tribal Lands Primer","year":""},{"key":"ref123","volume-title":"Justia law","year":"1903"},{"key":"ref124","article-title":"Article VI of the U.S","year":"","journal-title":"Constitution."},{"key":"ref125","volume-title":"Investigation of Allegations Concerning Indian Health Service","year":"1976"},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2152","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2013.301480","article-title":"Moving forward: breaking the cycle of mistrust between American Indians and researchers","volume":"103","author":"Pacheco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"ref127","first-page":"40","article-title":"The lost generation: American Indian women and sterilization abuse","volume":"31","author":"Carpio","year":"2004","journal-title":"Social Justice"},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1177\/0162243912470009","article-title":"Genomic justice for native Americans: impact of the Havasupai case on genetic research","volume":"38","author":"Garrison","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci Technol Human Values"},{"key":"ref129","volume-title":"Tecovirimat (TPOXX) for treatment of Mpox","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref130","year":""},{"key":"ref131","year":""},{"key":"ref132","volume-title":"Smallpox","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref133","volume-title":"Vocabulary of the Kiowa language","author":"Harrington","year":"1927"},{"key":"ref134","first-page":"14","volume-title":"\u201cRight in the Midst of My Own People\u201d: Native American Women and the Field Matron Program","author":"Emmerich","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref135","volume-title":"Field Matrons","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref136","article-title":"Annual report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for the year 1901","year":"1901"},{"key":"ref137","article-title":"Kiowa field Matrons","author":"Pedrick","year":"1900"},{"key":"ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1080\/10410236.2022.2093557","article-title":"Ethnic Minorities' perceptions of COVID-19 vaccines and challenges in the pandemic: a qualitative study to inform COVID-19 prevention interventions","volume":"37","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Commun"},{"key":"ref139","volume-title":"American Indian\/Alaska native health","year":""},{"key":"ref140","volume-title":"Bureau of Indian Affairs Records: Termination. Bureau of Indian Affairs Records: Termination","year":""},{"key":"ref141","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref142","year":""},{"key":"ref143","volume-title":"IHS innovative approach to health IT background information","year":""},{"key":"ref144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.02.051","article-title":"Vaccine-preventable, hospitalizations among American Indian\/Alaska native children using the 2012 Kid's inpatient database","volume":"36","author":"Nickel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref145","volume-title":"Medicaid & CHIP for American Indians and Alaska natives","year":""},{"key":"ref146","volume-title":"Requirements: Purchased\/referred care [PRC] delivery areas","year":""},{"key":"ref147","volume-title":"Chapter 19-urban Indian health program","year":""},{"key":"ref148","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000001307","article-title":"Changes in Preventative Health Care After Medicaid Expansion","volume":"58","author":"Tummalapalli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med Care."},{"key":"ref150","first-page":"3","volume-title":"Wiley online library. Affordable care act state Medicaid expansion and human papillomavirus vaccination among adolescent and young adult US women: A national studyHealth Serv Res","author":"Agenor","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5963","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.07.024","article-title":"The association between state Medicaid expansion and human papillomavirus vaccination","volume":"38","author":"Hoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1086\/713037","article-title":"Insurance Coverage, Provider Contact, and Take-Up of the HPV Vaccine","volume":"7","author":"Churchill","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Health Econ"},{"key":"ref153","volume-title":"Vaccines for Children","year":""},{"key":"ref154","volume-title":"GAO-22-105334","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref155","volume-title":"Vaccines for children (VFC) program information for providers","year":""},{"key":"ref156","year":""},{"key":"ref157","volume-title":"Native Americans and Medicaid: Coverage and financing issues","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref158","volume-title":"Poverty in the United States: 2022 current population reports","author":"Shrider","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref159","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10328-4","article-title":"Associations between insurance-related affordable care act policy changes with HPV vaccine completion","volume":"21","author":"Hawkins","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2021.11.002","article-title":"Trends in the impact of Medicaid expansion on the use of clinical preventive services","volume":"62","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"ref162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0144429","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144429","article-title":"Health-related outcomes among the poor: Medicaid expansion vs","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"Non-Expansion States PLoS One"},{"key":"ref163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.whi.2020.08.011","article-title":"Impacts of the affordable care act on receipt of Women's preventive Services in Community Health Centers in Medicaid expansion and nonexpansion states","volume":"31","author":"Hatch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Womens Health Issues"},{"key":"ref164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002275","article-title":"Expanding prenatal care to unauthorized immigrant women and the effects on infant health","volume":"130","author":"Swartz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"ref165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2021.101669","article-title":"A Federal Indian Health Insurance Plan: fulfilling a solemn obligation to American Indians and Alaska natives in the United States","volume":"25","author":"Khetpal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"key":"ref166","volume-title":"Funding for Indian Health Service","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref167","volume-title":"Final FY2023 omnibus bill includes advance appropriations for the Indian Health Service and several other priorities","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref168","volume-title":"U.S. spends more on health care for prisoners than Indians.","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref169","volume-title":"The National Tribal Budget Formulation Workgroup\u2019s recommendations of the Indian Health Service fiscal year 2019 budget","author":"Joseph","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref170","article-title":"Understanding the purchased\/referred care program","volume-title":"Part","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6937a2","article-title":"Cancers associated with human papillomavirus in American Indian and Alaska native populations-United States, 2013-2017","volume":"69","author":"Melkonian","year":"2020","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"ref172","volume-title":"Urban Indian health facts","year":""},{"key":"ref173","volume-title":"The Prevention and Treatment of Missing Data in Clinical Trials","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3705","DOI":"10.3390\/curroncol28050316","article-title":"Designing inclusive HPV Cancer vaccines and increasing uptake among native Americans-a cultural perspective review","volume":"28","author":"Bordeaux","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Oncol"},{"key":"ref175","year":""},{"key":"ref176","year":""},{"key":"ref177","year":""},{"key":"ref178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2015.07.037","article-title":"Demographic characteristics of members of the vaccine safety datalink (VSD): a comparison with the United States population","volume":"33","author":"Sukumaran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref179","year":""},{"key":"ref180","year":""},{"key":"ref181","first-page":"31","article-title":"Tribes, Vaccines, and COVID-19: A Look at Tribal Responses to the Pandemic","volume":"49","author":"Crepelle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fordham Urban Law Journal."},{"key":"ref182","year":""},{"key":"ref183","volume-title":"COVID-19 Vaccine Mandate for Educators at Bureau of Indian Education-Operated Schools. The Secretary of the Interior, Washington, Order No. 3402","year":""},{"key":"ref184","volume-title":"Bureau of Indian Education Issues Vaccine Mandate","year":""},{"key":"ref185","volume-title":"Immunization. Comanche academy-immunization","year":""},{"key":"ref186","volume-title":"Our Schools","year":""},{"key":"ref187","volume-title":"CDC\u2019s Tribal Epidemiology Centers Public Health Partnerships","year":""},{"key":"ref188","volume-title":"Census Redistricting Data (PL 94-171)","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref189","volume-title":"Medical Products for Rare Diseases and Conditions. U.S. Food and Drug Administration","year":""},{"key":"ref190","volume-title":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":""},{"key":"ref191","volume-title":"Fees and Invoicing. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref192","volume-title":"Data Genocide of American Indians and Alaska Natives in COVID-19 Data","year":""},{"key":"ref193","article-title":"Improving Data Capacity for American Indian\/Alaska Native (AIAN) Populations in Federal Health Surveys","year":"2019","journal-title":"Final Report"},{"key":"ref194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1089\/heq.2021.0129","article-title":"Disparities made invisible: gaps in COVID-19 data for American Indian and Alaska native populations","volume":"6","author":"Skinner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Equity"},{"key":"ref195","year":""},{"key":"ref196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2021.01394","article-title":"Systemic and structural racism: definitions, examples, health damages, and approaches to dismantling: study examines definitions, examples, health damages, and dismantling systemic and structural racism","volume":"41","author":"Braveman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Aff"},{"key":"ref197","volume-title":"What Is Structural Racism? American Medical Association","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2307311","article-title":"Indigenous Americans\u2014the Journal\u2019s historical \u201cIndian problem\u201d","volume":"390","author":"Jones","year":"2024","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref199","year":""},{"key":"ref200","year":""},{"key":"ref201","first-page":"312","volume-title":"American Indian holocaust and survival: A population history since 1492","author":"Thornton","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref202","year":""},{"key":"ref203","volume-title":"The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Guidebook","year":""},{"key":"ref204","volume-title":"DOI Bureau of Indian Land Projects Map","year":""},{"key":"ref205","volume-title":"Despite an optimistic jobs report, new data shows Native American unemployment remains staggeringly high","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/S1062-9769(97)90004-1","article-title":"The determinants of earnings differentials for indigenous Americans: human capital, location, or discrimination?","volume":"37","author":"Hurst","year":"1997","journal-title":"Q Rev Econ Finance"},{"key":"ref207","volume-title":"Overview","year":""},{"key":"ref208","year":""},{"key":"ref209","volume-title":"42 USC Ch. 20A: Civil Rights Commission. From Title 42\u2014The Public Health and Welfare","year":""},{"key":"ref210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1089\/heq.2021.0177","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in adult vaccination: a review of the state of evidence","volume":"6","author":"Granade","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Equity."},{"key":"ref211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12030277","article-title":"Determinants of vaccine hesitancy among African American and black individuals in the United States of America: a systematic literature review","volume":"12","author":"Savoia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2022.100196","article-title":"Acceptability of COVID-19 vaccines among Black immigrants living in the United States","volume":"12","author":"Ogunbajo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7123a2","article-title":"Covid-19 vaccination coverage, by race and ethnicity \u2014 national immunization survey adult covid module, United States, december 2020\u2013november 2021","volume":"71","author":"Kriss","year":"2022","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"ref214","first-page":"732","article-title":"An inquiry into indigenous political participation: implications for tribal sovereignty","author":"Wilkins","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203949573","volume-title":"For this land: Writings on religion in America","author":"Deloria","year":"2013"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1490286\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]],"date-time":"2025-02-18T15:08:59Z","timestamp":1739891339000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1490286\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]]},"references-count":215,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1490286"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1490286","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]]},"article-number":"1490286"}}