{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T10:38:29Z","timestamp":1778323109071,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]],"date-time":"2025-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744070400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Public transportation plays a vital role in urban settings, especially with the expansion of mass transit systems. However, concerns have arisen regarding the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens, primarily through contact with surfaces in public transport. There is limited data on this topic in Eastern Ethiopia, particularly in Harar. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the pathogenic bacterial profile, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns, and associated factors in intra-city public transport in Harar City, Eastern Ethiopia, from 20 June to 30 October 2023.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 258 intra-city public transport vehicles selected through convenience sampling. The data collection process was conducted using structured questionnaires administered to drivers, and swab samples were obtained from frequently touched surfaces, such as seats, handles, and doors. These specimens were shipped to a laboratory within 2\u202fh for microbiological analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 21. Linear and logistic regression analyses were employed to identify factors associated with pathogenic bacteria contamination, with statistical significance established at a <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>-value of &amp;lt;0.05 and a 95% confidence interval (CI).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>A total of 258 vehicles were sampled, with pathogenic bacteria isolated from 192 vehicles, resulting in an isolation rate of 74.4% (95% CI: 69\u201380%). The mean colony-forming unit (CFU) count was 2.994\u202f\u00d7\u202f10<jats:sup>4<\/jats:sup> (SD: \u00b1 0.562\u202f\u00d7\u202f10<jats:sup>4<\/jats:sup>\u202fCFU). The predominant pathogens identified included <jats:italic>coagulase-negative Staphylococci<\/jats:italic> (40.3%), <jats:italic>Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic> (27.5%), <jats:italic>Klebsiella species<\/jats:italic> (11.6%), and <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic> (10.9%). High antimicrobial resistance rates were observed, particularly against ampicillin (97.6%) and oxacillin (56.5%) in Gram-positive isolates, while Gram-negative rods exhibited varied resistance patterns. Multidrug resistance was detected in 22.5% of isolates. Significant factors associated with pathogenic bacteria contamination included sampling location (handles and seats), multiple routes, high passenger counts, unclean surfaces, and afternoon sampling.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study highlights alarming levels of bacterial contamination in public transport, the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria, and significant antibiotic resistance. Implementing effective hygiene measures and ensuring regular sanitation are essential to mitigating microbial risks and controlling the spread of community-acquired infections.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1521479","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]],"date-time":"2025-04-08T07:05:54Z","timestamp":1744095954000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Pathogenic bacterial profile, associated factors, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in intra-city public transport in Harar City, Eastern Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Nejib","family":"Sultan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ayichew","family":"Seyoum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Firayad","family":"Ayele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Getachew Kabew","family":"Mekonnnen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4366-1","article-title":"Enteric bacteria, methicillin resistant S. aureus and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from buses surfaces in Mekelle city, Tigray, Ethiopia","volume":"12","author":"Kahsay","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1108\/9780080456812","volume-title":"Public transport vehicle types, public transport in developing countries","author":"Iles","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/su12104259","article-title":"Modeling user perception of bus service quality: case study of Mauritius","author":"Champahom","year":"2019","journal-title":"Songklanakarin J Sci Tech"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3126\/tujm.v5i0.22312","article-title":"Detection of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in public transportation of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Tribhuvan university","volume":"5","author":"Angbuhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Microbiol"},{"key":"ref5","volume-title":"Bacterial profiles and antibacterial susceptibility patterns of frequently hand touched surfaces on public transport buses, automated teller machines and St\u2019 Paul Hospital patient waiting areas in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia June, 2019","author":"Akele","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13062-020-00278-z","article-title":"A machine learning framework to determine geolocations from metagenomic profiling","volume":"15","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol Direct"},{"key":"ref7","article-title":"Investigation of interior air quality of taxicabs using LPG","volume-title":"Mapua Institute of Technology undergraduate thesis","author":"Atienza","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref8","first-page":"581","article-title":"Microbiological assessment of the pedestrian hand rails of delta state polytechnic, Ozoro","volume-title":"J. Pharm. Innov.","author":"Orogu","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.9790\/2402-1009024851","article-title":"Bacterial contamination on hand touch surfaces of public buses in Chittagong City, Bangladesh","volume":"10","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2016","journal-title":"IOSR J Environ Sci Toxicol Food Technol"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.2478\/acs-2019-0007","article-title":"Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus aureus in public transport in Bratislava, Slovakia","volume":"12","author":"Medve\u010fov\u00e1","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Chimica Slovaca"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.4103\/2277-9183.157711","article-title":"Investigation of microbial contamination frequency in drinking water of buses at Sofeh terminal of Isfahan-Iran","volume":"4","author":"Sharafi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Eng."},{"key":"ref12","volume-title":"Environmental risk factors for community-acquired MRSA","author":"Friedman","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.308","article-title":"Poor survival of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on inanimate objects in the public spaces","volume":"5","author":"Domon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"7","article-title":"Bacterial contamination of door handles\/knobs in selected public conveniences in Abuja metropolis, Nigeria: a public health threat","volume":"6","author":"Nworie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cont J Med Res"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105119","article-title":"Prevalence and dissemination risk of antimicrobial-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from shared bikes in Beijing, China","volume":"132","author":"Zou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1367324","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1367324","article-title":"An overview of the bacterial microbiome of public transportation systems\u2014risks, detection, and countermeasures","volume":"12","author":"Ly","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(05)62009-X","article-title":"Global transport networks and infectious disease spread","volume":"62","author":"Tatem","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv Parasitol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e053856","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-053856","article-title":"Scoping review of food safety at transport stations in Africa","volume":"11","author":"Ncama","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.22207\/JPAM.12.3.18","article-title":"Bacteriological evaluation of hand contact surfaces at bus terminals in Uyo Metropolis","volume":"12","author":"John","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Pure Appl Microbiol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8492740","article-title":"Assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practice toward antibiotic use among Harar city and its surrounding community, eastern Ethiopia","volume":"2018","author":"Jifar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.11648\/j.aff.20211004.15","article-title":"Assessment of on-farm diversity status and Farmer\u2019s perception for landraces crops at eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia","volume":"10","author":"Tamiru","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric Forest Fish"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.13189\/fst.2020.080203","article-title":"Hygienic practice of complementary food preparation and associated factors among mothers with children aged from 6 to 24 months in rural kebeles of Harari region, Ethiopia","volume":"8","author":"Fufa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci Technol"},{"key":"ref23","volume-title":"Service of vehicle or taxi, Harar town in transport Beareu: Harar, Regional State (2013). Available at: https:\/\/arifchereta.com\/tenders\/harari-transport-and-roads-development-bureau-now-invites-bidders-necessary-labor-materials-and-equipment-for-the-construction-works-of-different-projects\/ (Accessed September 16, 2024).","author":"Beareu","year":""},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555815882","volume-title":"Manual of environmental microbiology","author":"Hurst","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.47740\/492.UDSIJD6i","article-title":"BACTERIA loads of public transport in the tamale metropolis, Ghana","volume":"7","author":"Abdulai","year":"2020","journal-title":"UDS Int J Develop"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/mrji\/2019\/v27i230096","article-title":"Diversity and antibiotics susceptibility of bacterial species on hand surfaces in public buses plying Kenyatta National Hospital Route 7c in Nairobi","volume":"27","author":"Chebon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol Res J Int"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/arrb\/2018\/v30i630029","article-title":"Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus small colony variant (scv) clinical isolates in Zaria, Nigeria","volume":"30","author":"Ikala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Res Rev Biol"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.5001\/omj.2014.90","article-title":"VanA and vanB positive vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among clinical isolates in shiraz, south of Iran","volume":"29","author":"Saadat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oman Med J"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2014.08.016","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in public transportation vehicles (buses): another piece to the epidemiologic puzzle","volume":"42","author":"Lutz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"key":"ref30","first-page":"40","volume-title":"Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. M100","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cels.2015.01.001","article-title":"Geospatial resolution of human and bacterial diversity with city-scale metagenomics","volume":"1","author":"Afshinnekoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Syst"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118910030","volume-title":"Quantitative microbial risk assessment","author":"Haas","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref33","first-page":"1","article-title":"Prevalence and biochemical characterization of Bacteria isolated from some river\/canal Bank water sources, door of transport vehicles and shop counters of Western UP and Uttrakhand area in India","volume":"5","author":"Shishodia","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Pure Appl Sci Technol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e48111225925","DOI":"10.33448\/rsd-v11i2.25925","article-title":"Contamination, by pathogenic multidrug resistant bacteria on interior surfaces of ambulances","volume":"11","author":"Viancelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res Soc Dev"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.20546\/ijcmas.2018.712.142","article-title":"Isolation of potentially pathogenic bacteria from public service cars door handles","volume":"1","author":"Iskandar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00109-13","article-title":"Coagulase-negative staphylococci","volume":"27","author":"Becker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8877200","article-title":"Microbial diversity and antibiotic susceptibility pattern of bacteria associated with motorcycle helmets","volume":"2020","author":"Sapkota","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Microbiol"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.36525\/sanitas.2017.2","article-title":"Preliminary research: identification of microorganism in the waiting room on public transportation facilities, DKI Jakarta","volume":"8","author":"El Jannah","year":"2017","journal-title":"SANITAS Jurnal Teknologi Dan Seni Kesehatan"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.2013.873418","article-title":"Elucidation of bacteria found in car interiors and strategies to reduce the presence of potential pathogens","volume":"30","author":"Stephenson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biofouling"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0668.2012.00770.x","article-title":"Comparison of sampling methods for the assessment of indoor microbial exposure","volume":"22","author":"Frankel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.22207\/JPAM.12.4.58","article-title":"Potential bacterial contaminants in the handles of Car doors","volume":"12","author":"AL-Harmoosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Pure Appl Microbiol"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13070659","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in the WHO African region: a systematic literature review 2016\u20132020","volume":"13","author":"Gahimbare","year":"2024","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4203","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S372930","article-title":"A high level of antimicrobial resistance in gram-positive cocci isolates from different clinical samples among patients referred to Arsho advanced medical laboratory, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia","volume":"15","author":"Gebremariam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Drug Resist"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2888","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25122888","article-title":"Resistance of gram-positive bacteria to current antibacterial agents and overcoming approaches","volume":"25","author":"Jubeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-019-00731-7","article-title":"Impact of air-conditioning system disinfection on microbial contamination of passenger cars","volume":"12","author":"Go\u0142ofit-Szymczak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmos Health"},{"key":"ref46","volume-title":"Investigation of indoor and outdoor air bacterial density in Tehran subway system","author":"Naddafi","year":"2011"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1521479\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]],"date-time":"2025-04-08T07:06:18Z","timestamp":1744095978000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1521479\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]]},"references-count":46,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1521479"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1521479","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,8]]},"article-number":"1521479"}}