{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T01:21:12Z","timestamp":1778721672127,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]],"date-time":"2025-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739923200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006545","name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T37MD008647"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T37MD008647"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006545","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Arboviruses represent a global public health challenge. The lack of diagnostic protocols and the presence of asymptomatic infections complicate confirmatory diagnostics. Alphaviruses, such as the equine encephalitis viruses, can cause severe outbreaks and are usually misdiagnosed as dengue. Thus, evidence for their circulation was assessed here. Plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) was used to compare sera collected during 2022\u20132023 from an area with high dengue endemicity (Hone Creek) with another with low endemicity (Great Metropolitan Area, GMA) to elucidate the putative alphavirus circulation and determine whether there were differences between the two areas. The screening results of PRNT50% against the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and the Eastern equine encephalitis virus showed that 20.5% of sera collected from Hone Creek were positive for VEEV, with 15.4% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u202f=\u202f40) showing real neutralizing titers. In the GMA, only 0.8% tested positive for VEEV during the screening, with only 0.3% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u202f=\u202f1) showing a true neutralizing titer. No sample was positive for the Eastern equine encephalitis virus or Mayaro (MAYV) and one serum sample from Hone Creek was chikungunya positive. This study underscores the global health challenge posed by arboviruses with their similar clinical presentation and antibody cross-reactivity, particularly in tropical regions where flaviviruses and alphaviruses prevail and co-circulate. The comparison of PRNT results between high and low dengue-endemic areas in Costa Rica shed light on the potential circulation of the VEEV and the fact that there is no circulation of Eastern equine encephalitis virus or Mayaro yet. These findings indicate a higher prevalence of VEEV in the high-endemic area, emphasizing the importance of targeted surveillance, control measures, and better diagnostics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1537019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]],"date-time":"2025-02-19T06:49:03Z","timestamp":1739947743000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Exposure to non-endemic arboviruses (alphaviruses) in Costa Rica assessed from human samples collected in areas with contrasting levels of dengue endemicity"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Andrea","family":"Valles-Morera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tatiana","family":"Murillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jose","family":"Lizano-Bola\u00f1os","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Gutierrez-Roche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Margarita","family":"Alvarado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Alfaro-Alvarado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gerardo Andr\u00e9s","family":"Calvo-Salas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Grace","family":"Prado-Hidalgo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Johis","family":"Ortega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eugenia","family":"Corrales-Aguilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201600175","article-title":"The re-emerging arboviral threat: hidden enemies: the emergence of obscure arboviral diseases, and the potential use of Wolbachia in their control","volume":"39","author":"Carneiro Dutra","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/S0188-4409(02)00378-8","article-title":"The global emergence\/resurgence of arboviral diseases as public health problems","volume":"33","author":"Gubler","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch Med Res"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/v14010093","article-title":"Serological positivity against selected Flaviviruses and alphaviruses in free-ranging bats and birds from Costa Rica evidence exposure to arboviruses seldom reported locally in humans","volume":"14","author":"Barrantes Murillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-020-00360-4","article-title":"Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus: the problem is not over for tropical America","volume":"19","author":"Guzm\u00e1n Ter\u00e1n","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-050715-105122","article-title":"Zika, chikungunya, and other emerging vector-borne viral diseases","volume":"69","author":"Weaver","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu Rev Med"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1406035","article-title":"Chikungunya virus and the global spread of a mosquito-borne disease","volume":"372","author":"Weaver","year":"2015","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1212628","article-title":"Eastern equine encephalitis in Latin America","volume":"369","author":"Carrera","year":"2013","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref8","first-page":"2215","article-title":"Arbovirus en Costa Rica: \u00bfA qu\u00e9 nos enfrentamos y cu\u00e1les son los retos futuros?","volume":"24","author":"Piche Ovares","year":"2018","journal-title":"Quim Clin de Costa Rica"},{"key":"ref9","first-page":"7","article-title":"Revisi\u00f3n Chikungunya: un virus que nos acecha","volume":"57","author":"Corrales Aguilar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Med Costarric"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006533","article-title":"Current challenges and implications for dengue, chikungunya and Zika seroprevalence studies worldwide: a scoping review","volume":"12","author":"Fritzell","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3390\/v10050248","article-title":"Molecular and clinical characterization of chikungunya virus infections in Southeast Mexico","volume":"10","author":"Gal\u00e1n Huerta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref12","author":"Staples","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1914328","article-title":"Eastern equine encephalitis virus: another emergent arbovirus in the United States","volume":"381","author":"Morens","year":"2019","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011154","article-title":"Infection with chikungunya virus confers heterotypic cross-neutralizing antibodies and memory B-cells against other arthritogenic alphaviruses predominantly through the B domain of the E2 glycoprotein","volume":"17","author":"Powers","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a121346","article-title":"An outbreak of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Central America evidence for exogenous source of a virulent virus subtype 1","volume":"94","author":"Franck","year":"1971","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref16","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref17","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref18","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004554","article-title":"Epidemiology of emergent Madariaga encephalitis in a region with endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis: initial host studies and human cross-sectional study in Darien, Panama","volume":"10","author":"Vittor","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2429","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.20-0408","article-title":"Endemic and epidemic human alphavirus infections in eastern Panama: an analysis of population-based cross-sectional surveys","volume":"103","author":"Carrera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref21","author":"Alfaro N\u00e1jera","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref22","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref23","article-title":"Re-emergence of Oropouche virus between 2023 and 2024 in Brazil: an observational epidemiological study","author":"Scachetti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.34.2.2374","article-title":"Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern, Western and Venezuelan)","volume":"34","author":"Ar\u00e9chiga Ceballos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev Sci Tech"},{"key":"ref25","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1421744","article-title":"Epidemiological, virological and clinical characterization of a dengue\/Zika outbreak in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica 2017\u20132018","volume":"14","author":"Soto-Garita","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2020.103140","article-title":"National seroprevalence and risk factors for eastern equine encephalitis and Venezuelan equine encephalitis in Costa Rica","volume":"92","author":"Le\u00f3n","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Equine Vet"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.00672-19","article-title":"First complete coding sequence of a Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus strain isolated from an equine encephalitis case in Costa Rica","volume":"8","author":"Le\u00f3n","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol Resour Announc"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a121426","article-title":"An epidemiologic study of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Costa Rica, 1970","volume":"95","author":"Martin","year":"1972","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.11.50","article-title":"Endemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in the Americas: hidden under the dengue umbrella","volume":"6","author":"Aguilar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Future Virol"},{"key":"ref31","author":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref32","author":"\u00c1valos","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8081167","article-title":"Epidemic alphaviruses: ecology, emergence and outbreaks","volume":"8","author":"Azar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere","article-title":"Robustness of serologic investigations for chikungunya and Mayaro viruses following coemergence","volume":"5","author":"Fischer","year":"2020","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref35","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Recomendaciones para la detecci\u00f3n y el diagn\u00f3stico por laboratorio de infecciones por arbovirus en la Regi\u00f3n de las Am\u00e9ricas. Recomendaciones para la detecci\u00f3n y el diagn\u00f3stico por laboratorio de infecciones por arbovirus en la Regi\u00f3n de las Am\u00e9ricas","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref36","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12010007","article-title":"Serosurvey in two dengue hyperendemic areas of Costa Rica evidence active circulation of WNV and SLEV in peri-domestic and domestic animals and in humans","volume":"12","author":"Piche Ovares","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2969","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002969","article-title":"A novel live-attenuated vaccine candidate for Mayaro fever","volume":"8","author":"Weise","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6084","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.06449-11","article-title":"Attenuation of chikungunya virus vaccine strain 181\/clone 25 is determined by two amino acid substitutions in the E2 envelope glycoprotein","volume":"86","author":"Gorchakov","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"ref40","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref41","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref42","author":"Wickham","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05579-y","article-title":"Seasonal changes in the diversity, host preferences and infectivity of mosquitoes in two arbovirus-endemic regions of Costa Rica","volume":"16","author":"Romero Vega","year":"2023","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3014.240182","article-title":"Characteristics of Madariaga and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infections, Panama","volume":"30","author":"Rivera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.23818\/limn.39.38","article-title":"Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of temporary ponds of Costa Rica and Nicaragua","volume":"39","author":"Rueda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Limnetica"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12322","article-title":"Transmission potential of Mayaro virus in Florida Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes","volume":"32","author":"Wiggins","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.72.805","article-title":"A novel, rapid assay for detection and differentiation of serotype-specific antibodies to Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex alphaviruses","volume":"72","author":"WANG","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.05129-11","article-title":"Use of Sindbis\/eastern equine encephalitis chimeric viruses in plaque reduction neutralization tests for arboviral disease diagnostics","volume":"18","author":"Johnson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Vaccine Immunol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1537019\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]],"date-time":"2025-02-19T06:49:07Z","timestamp":1739947747000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1537019\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"references-count":48,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1537019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1537019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"article-number":"1537019"}}