{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T20:49:16Z","timestamp":1790023756586,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]],"date-time":"2025-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748995200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Mental health plays a fundamental role in overall wellbeing, with depression being one of the most common mental health disorders worldwide. University students face significant academic, financial, and social pressures, making them particularly vulnerable to depression. Research showed difference in consumption of psychoactive substances such as caffeine and tobacco among genders and academic fields. It suggests also a link between the use of these substances and an increase in depressive symptoms. The consumption of these substances among all university students in Lebanon from multiple majors and the relationship between this intake and mental health remains underexplored.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>This cross-sectional study surveyed university students across Lebanon to assess their tobacco and caffeine consumption and its relationship with depression. A self-administered online questionnaire, including the Beck Depression Inventory, was used to measure depression levels and collect data on substance use patterns. A total of 626 convenient responses were analyzed, incorporating both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The study found that 31.15% of university students experienced some level of depression. Gender differences were observed in tobacco and caffeine consumption: cigarette smoking was significantly higher among males (25%) than females (7.4%), while no significant gender-based differences were found for electronic cigarette and shisha use. Among caffeinated products, chocolate was the most consumed (92.9% males, 98.1% females), followed by other types of coffee (71.9% males, 80.5% females). Significant gender differences were noted in Arabic coffee, chocolate, tea, and cigarette consumption, but not for energy drinks, e-cigarettes, or waterpipes. Depression levels did not significantly differ between genders for most substances, except for cigarette smoking, where female smokers exhibited significantly higher depression scores than male smokers (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.032). Additionally, depression levels varied across academic majors, with architecture students displaying the highest levels and medical students the lowest. Tobacco consumption is higher among non-medical majors, whereas caffeine is higher among health and non-medical majors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study highlights the need for targeted mental health interventions, awareness campaigns, and accessible psychological support services for university students. Future research should explore additional sociocultural factors influencing substance use and mental health.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605086","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]],"date-time":"2025-06-04T04:14:21Z","timestamp":1749010461000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Patterns and prevalence of depression, tobacco, and caffeine use among university students from different majors in Lebanon: a cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Afife","family":"El Hashem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Bou Saba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Maria","family":"Bou Madi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Mahfouz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Derian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elie","family":"El Husseiny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeanne-Marie","family":"Hanna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maguy","family":"El Hayek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shafika","family":"Assaad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Depressive Disorder (Depression)\n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e19098","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.19098","article-title":"Assessment of the relationship of depression with tobacco and caffeine use among university students: a cross-sectional study","volume":"13","author":"Safarini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2018.06.029","article-title":"Mental health problems and onset of tobacco use among 12- to 24-year-olds in the PATH study","volume":"57","author":"Green","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2010.02.011","article-title":"Depression vulnerability predicts cigarette smoking among college students: gender and negative reinforcement expectancies as contributing factors","volume":"35","author":"Morrell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Addict Behav."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15081609","article-title":"A comparison of dependence across different types of nicotine containing products and coffee","volume":"15","author":"Fagerstrom","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e055201","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-055201","article-title":"Prevalence of cigarette and waterpipe tobacco smoking among adults in three Eastern Mediterranean countries: a cross-sectional household survey","volume":"12","author":"Nakkash","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5","article-title":"Caffeine consumption, intoxication, and stress among female university students: a cross-sectional study","author":"Alateeq","year":"2021","journal-title":"Middle East Curr Psychiatry"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/5762299","article-title":"Caffeine consumption among various university students in the UAE, exploring the frequencies, different sources and reporting adverse effects and withdrawal symptoms","volume":"2022","author":"Kharaba","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Nutr Metab."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.4082\/kjfm.2016.37.2.111","article-title":"The relationship of caffeine intake with depression, anxiety, stress, and sleep in Korean adolescents","volume":"37","author":"Jin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Korean J Fam Med."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e240376","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.0376","article-title":"Use of tobacco products and suicide attempts among elementary school\u2013aged children","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e48018","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.48018","article-title":"Caffeine consumption and depression, anxiety, and stress levels among university students in medina: a cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"Makki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9040473","article-title":"Intake of caffeine and its association with physical and mental health status among university students in Bahrain","volume":"9","author":"Jahrami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Foods."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.04.004","article-title":"Intake of caffeine from all sources and reasons for use by college students","volume":"38","author":"Mahoney","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Nutr."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7020","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17197020","article-title":"Prevalence, predictors, and awareness of coffee consumption and its trend among Saudi female students","volume":"17","author":"Alfawaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.150205","article-title":"Why is depression more prevalent in women?","volume":"40","author":"Albert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2020.02.014","article-title":"Knowledge and consumption of caffeinated products by university students in Beirut, Lebanon","volume":"37","author":"Khalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Nutr ESPEN."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-025-06701-1","article-title":"Impact of socioeconomic and political stressors on mental health: a cross-sectional study on university students in Lebanon","volume":"25","author":"Al-Khalil","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2019.104845","article-title":"Data on the relationship between caffeine addiction and stress among Lebanese medical students in Lebanon","volume":"28","author":"Samaha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Data Brief."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0261-5614(19)32465-3","article-title":"The prevalence, contributing factors and side effects of caffeine consumption among Lebanese university medical and pharmacy students","volume":"38","author":"Hlais","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Nutr"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.13189\/ujp.2020.080203","article-title":"Self-diagnosed depression of Chinese high school students: do gender and urban-rural location make a difference?","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Univers J Psychol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.26719\/emhj.18.021","article-title":"Tobacco and waterpipe use among university students in Saudi Arabia: impact of tobacco sales ban","volume":"25","author":"Daradka","year":"2018","journal-title":"East Mediterr Health J."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11557","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191811557","article-title":"Smoking habits among college students at a public university in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","volume":"19","author":"Bin Abdulrahman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-016-0841-8","article-title":"Stress is a principal factor that promotes tobacco use in females","volume":"65","author":"Torres","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2016.07.013","article-title":"Sex\/gender differences in smoking cessation: a review","volume":"92","author":"Smith","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prev Med."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.04.020","article-title":"Perceived stress and depression in 45 low- and middle-income countries","volume":"274","author":"Crist\u00f3bal-Narv\u00e1ez","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Affect Disord."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1037579","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.1037579","article-title":"Caffeine is negatively associated with depression in patients aged 20 and older","volume":"13","author":"Bao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115307","article-title":"The association between coffee consumption and risk of incident depression and anxiety: exploring the benefits of moderate intake","volume":"326","author":"Min","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1529191","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1529191","article-title":"Association between cigarette smoking and the risk of major psychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis in depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder","volume":"12","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Med."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.18061\/bhac.v8i2.9767","article-title":"Mental health challenges in architecture and landscape architecture students","volume":"8","author":"Battisto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Build Healthy Acad Communities J."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e786","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.786","article-title":"The relationship of undergraduate major and housing with depression in undergraduate students","volume":"8","author":"Ajinkya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cureus."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2019.01.013","article-title":"Gender inequality and depression among medical students: a global meta-regression analysis","volume":"111","author":"Pacheco","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94232","DOI":"10.52965\/001c.94232","article-title":"Prevalence and associated factors related to tobacco consumption among university students in Malaysia","volume":"12","author":"Chow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Psychol Res"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e16405","article-title":"Assessment of food consumption, smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity by sex and major of study among a sample of college students in Jordan","volume":"9","author":"Ali","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605086\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]],"date-time":"2025-06-04T04:14:23Z","timestamp":1749010463000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605086\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]]},"references-count":33,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605086"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605086","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,4]]},"article-number":"1605086"}}