{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T22:16:01Z","timestamp":1789856161086,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764806400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rapid urbanization in the developing world has exacerbated the crisis of poor sanitation within sprawling informal settlements. Container-Based Sanitation (CBS) has emerged as a promising, alternative solution designed to fill these critical infrastructural deficits where conventional sewage systems are absent. Despite its apparent potential, there is a recognized gap in the contextual understanding of CBS implementation, particularly concerning the influence of local social and political dynamics, which ultimately hinders effective scale and sustainable programming. This qualitative study aimed to explore the intricate factors surrounding the implementation of CBS in an urban slum, specifically investigating the technology\u2019s operational roles, the influence of existing power structures, the key challenges encountered, and viable strategies for enhancing its adoption within an informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. Data collection utilized in-depth interviews (IDIs) with 25 key participants, including residents, local community leaders, and relevant government officials working in the Mukuru Kwa Reuben informal settlement. A purposive sampling method guided participant selection, and the collected qualitative data was rigorously analyzed using a framework analysis approach. The study\u2019s findings indicate that CBS was perceived positively as a cost-effective and safe solution for improving household sanitation. However, its widespread scalability was significantly limited by a series of entrenched contextual challenges. The challenges stemmed from a inadequate governance, power structures and coordination of governance and coordination, including inaccurate data and failed consultation, which limited project success. Financially, the sector was underfunded and deprioritized, leading to an inequitable, high-cost user-fee model that burdened residents. A consistent lack of community involvement undermined the long-term sustainability and adoption of the interventions. The research concludes that scaling CBS successfully requires transcending purely technical considerations. The findings will contribute to policy-making in Nairobi\u2019s Special Planning Area framework and broader debates on urban sanitation financing. Future implementation strategies should focus on establishing collaborative governance models and integrating local leadership to navigate and mitigate existing power dynamics, thereby addressing the systemic, contextual barriers required for achieving sustainable and equitable sanitation coverage.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1674329","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T17:04:49Z","timestamp":1764867889000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Container-based sanitation in Nairobi\u2019s Mukuru: roles, power, challenges and strategies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ivy","family":"Chumo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Karani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joy","family":"Riungu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lilian Mukiri","family":"Kirimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1728-4457.2012.00493.x","article-title":"Urbanization as a global historical process: theory and evidence from sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"38","author":"Fox","year":"2012","journal-title":"Urban Global Historical Process"},{"key":"ref2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Urban governance and informal settlements","volume-title":"The Urban Book Series","author":"Suhartini","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6939\u20136954","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10126939","article-title":"Challenges to achieving sustainable sanitation in informal settlements of Kigali, Rwanda","volume":"10","author":"Tsinda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref4","article-title":"Evaluating the potential of container-based sanitation","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007","article-title":"Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums","volume":"30","author":"Katukiza","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biotechnol Adv"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.3390\/su8121289","article-title":"Towards \u201cSustainable\u201d Sanitation: Challenges and Opportunities in Urban Areas","volume":"8","author":"Andersson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref7","article-title":"Core questions on water, sanitation and hygiene for household surveys. 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