{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T06:46:40Z","timestamp":1776235600766,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Postgraduate Innovation Special Fund Project of South Jiangxi Medical University","award":["YC2024-X018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YC2024-X018"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Program Project of the Health Commission of Jiangxi Province","award":["202510461"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202510461"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research Project of the Department of Education of Jiangxi Province","award":["GJJ2401322"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GJJ2401322"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly released into the environment due to intensive mining, industrial processing, and expanding technological applications, resulting in widespread human exposure. Within the respiratory exposome framework, REEs have increasingly been recognized as a potentially important class of airborne contaminants. Fine and ultrafine REE-containing particles can penetrate deeply into the distal lung, where they exhibit high biopersistence and limited clearance. Epidemiological evidence from mining and industrial regions suggests that elevated internal REE burdens may be associated with increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms and chronic lung diseases, including bronchitis and interstitial lung disease. Toxicokinetic and experimental studies provide mechanistic support, demonstrating that inhaled REEs preferentially deposit in the alveolar region, interact with epithelial and immune cells, and may translocate into systemic circulation. At the molecular level, REEs have been shown to induce oxidative stress, immune and inflammatory dysregulation, and calcium homeostasis imbalance in experimental models, thereby promoting tissue injury and remodeling. These processes may contribute to a progressive pathological continuum from persistent inflammation to fibrosis and, potentially, tumorigenesis. Notably, exposure characteristics\u2014including particle physicochemical properties, dose, co-exposure scenarios, and host susceptibility\u2014critically shape health outcomes in real-world settings. Despite accumulating evidence, key uncertainties remain regarding human-relevant exposure thresholds, long-term dose\u2013response relationships, and validated biomarkers of effect. Current knowledge is still largely derived from experimental models, with limited integration into population-based risk assessment. Overall, this review uses a structured literature search and narrative synthesis approach to integrate environmental exposure pathways, toxicokinetic characteristics, and mechanistic evidence within an exposome-oriented framework. It highlights that REEs represent emerging inhalation hazards with the potential to contribute to the burden of chronic respiratory diseases, underscoring the need for improved exposure assessment, biomonitoring strategies, and evidence-based public health interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1811406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T05:44:54Z","timestamp":1776231894000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental exposure to rare earth elements and respiratory health: an emerging public health concern"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jie","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the First Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University","place":["Ganzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pengcheng","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Gannan Medical University","place":["Ganzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weijian","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongyi County People\u2019s Hospital","place":["Ganzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Runan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy, Gannan Medical University","place":["Ganzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Zhong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the First Clinical Medicine, Gannan Medical University","place":["Ganzhou, China"]},{"name":"Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University","place":["Ganzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2015.01.030","article-title":"Health effects and toxicity mechanisms of rare earth elements-knowledge gaps and research prospects","volume":"115","author":"Pagano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2021.127830","article-title":"Combined omics approaches reveal distinct responses between light and heavy rare earth elements in Saccharomyces cerevisiae","volume":"425","author":"Grosjean","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Hazard Mater"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3311","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.7b03484","article-title":"Behind the scenes of clean energy: the environmental footprint of rare earth products","volume":"6","author":"Arshi","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Sustain Chem Eng"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-013-3469-8","article-title":"State of rare earth elements in different environmental components in mining areas of China","volume":"186","author":"Liang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ Monit Assess"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1557\/s43577-022-00286-6","article-title":"Environmental impacts of rare earth production","volume":"47","author":"Zapp","year":"2022","journal-title":"MRS Bull"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.115044","article-title":"Sources and geochemical behaviors of rare earth elements in suspended particulate matter in a wet-dry tropical river","volume":"218","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.132672","article-title":"Can bioleaching of nib magnets be an answer to the criticality of rare earths? 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