{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T05:03:55Z","timestamp":1789707835687,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anchored in Grossman\u2019s health production framework, this study examines how socioeconomic, institutional, environmental, and demographic conditions are associated with population health in developing countries. Population health is measured through three complementary indicators\u2014life expectancy, infant mortality, and maternal mortality\u2014to capture broader survival conditions, early-life vulnerability, and maternal health risks. Using panel data for 90 developing countries from 2002 to 2018, the study estimates country fixed-effects models and uses Driscoll\u2013Kraay standard errors to strengthen inference in the presence of heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation, and cross-sectional dependence. Additional robustness checks are conducted using Panel-Corrected Standard Errors, Feasible Generalized Least Squares, and winsorized specifications. The results show that human capital, government effectiveness, and population density are consistently associated with higher life expectancy and lower infant and maternal mortality, and that these coefficient signs remain stable across robustness checks. Economic misery is associated with lower life expectancy and higher mortality in the baseline models, although its significance weakens in some sensitivity tests. Government health expenditure and educational attainment are generally associated with more favorable health outcomes, but their estimates are less stable after winsorization. Ecological footprint yields mixed associations across the three health indicators, while political stability produces unstable and, in some cases, counterintuitive coefficients. Overall, the findings suggest that population health in developing countries is associated more consistently with human capability and institutional effectiveness than with health expenditure alone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1838213","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T04:34:45Z","timestamp":1789706085000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Socioeconomic, institutional, environmental, and demographic determinants of population health in 90 developing countries: panel data evidence"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Tahsin Tabassum","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Md. Golam","family":"Kibria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Ridwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]},{"name":"Department of Economics and Banking, International Islamic University Chittagong","place":["Chittagong, Bangladesh"]},{"name":"ARUCAD Research Centre, Arkin University of Creative Arts and Design","place":["Nothern Cyprus, T\u00fcrkiye"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Comparative and International Studies, ETH Zurich","place":["Zurich, Switzerland"]},{"name":"Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus Rotterdam University","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chun Kai","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Society and Sustainability Lab, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K. P.","family":"Jaheer Mukthar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Kristu Jayanti (Deemed to be University)","place":["Bengaluru, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arsene Mouongue","family":"Kelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Statistic and Population Studies Department, University of the Western Cape","place":["Cape Town, South Africa"]},{"name":"Center for Studies and Research in Economics and Management (CERME), University of Dschang","place":["Dschang, Cameroon"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Md. Akter","family":"Hossain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chunlan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collaborating Centre for Oxford University and CUHK for Disaster and Medical Humanitarian Response (CCOUC), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wai-kit","family":"Ming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(94)90170-8","article-title":"Social and environmental factors and life expectancy, infant mortality, and maternal mortality rates: results of a cross-national comparison","volume":"39","author":"Hertz","year":"1994","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01264105","article-title":"Infant health and mortality indicators","volume":"11","author":"Masuy-Stroobant","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur J Popul"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s12546-019-09240-x","article-title":"Social determinants of under-five mortality in urban Bangladesh","volume":"37","author":"Chowdhury","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Popul Res"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1177\/0030222821993616","article-title":"The role of socio-economic and female indicators on child mortality rate in Bangladesh: a time series analysis","volume":"86","author":"Rahman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Omega"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1086\/259880","article-title":"On the concept of health capital and the demand for health","volume":"80","author":"Grossman","year":"1972","journal-title":"J Polit Econ"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8268.12287","article-title":"The effects of health expenditure on health outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)","volume":"29","author":"Arthur","year":"2017","journal-title":"Afr Dev Rev"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/00036840412331313521","article-title":"Estimating a health production function for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)","volume":"37","author":"Fayissa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl Econ"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/s41287-026-00759-3","article-title":"Resource dependence and population health outcomes: insights from developing countries (2000\u20132020)","author":"Ko","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eur J Dev Res"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssaho.2025.101686","article-title":"Economic inequality and corruption as social determinants of health: an empirical analysis across 136 countries (2001\u20132020)","volume":"12","author":"Leung","year":"2025","journal-title":"Soc Sci Humanit Open"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1177\/1391561418799110","article-title":"Investment in physical, human capital, economic growth and life expectancy in Bangladesh: an empirical investigation","volume":"19","author":"Maitra","year":"2018","journal-title":"South Asia Econ J"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.4626","article-title":"Life expectancy and human capital: new empirical evidence","volume":"32","author":"Vu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Econ"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.70036","article-title":"Enhancing life expectancy for sustainable development: poverty reduction and climate change implications in the developing and emerging economies","volume":"33","author":"Ogwu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain Dev"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-015-0927-4","article-title":"Determinants of life expectancy and its prospects under the role of economic misery: a case of Pakistan","volume":"126","author":"Shahbaz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s10754-019-09272-z","article-title":"Health expenditure, longevity, and child mortality: dynamic panel data approach with global data","volume":"20","author":"Ray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Health Econ Manag"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.71321","article-title":"Institutions matter for sustainable development: economic growth, structural transformation, efficiency, and health outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa","author":"Sun","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sustain Dev"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.62345\/jads.2023.12.3.94","article-title":"Impact of ecological footprint on the longevity of human life: a case of emerging Asian economies","volume":"12","author":"Iqbal","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Asian Dev Stud"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1007\/s44155-026-00390-x","article-title":"Cross-national time series analysis of the association between population density and population health outcomes","volume":"6","author":"Tang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov Soc Sci Health"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2026.103506","article-title":"Governance matters: the moderating role of government effectiveness in the digitalization\u2013human capital nexus in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"121","author":"Hou","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int J Educ Dev"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1730385","article-title":"Distributional dynamics of child mortality in Africa: quantile evidence from economic, environmental, and demographic transitions","volume":"14","author":"Ridwan","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2023.07.003","article-title":"Economic conditions and health: local effects, national effect and local area heterogeneity","volume":"214","author":"Janke","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Econ Behav Organ"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2009.03.033","article-title":"Is the political system really related to health?","volume":"69","author":"Klomp","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87568","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-21872-w","article-title":"Beyond COP26: can income level moderate fossil fuels, carbon emissions, and human capital for healthy life expectancy in Africa?","volume":"29","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Sci Pollut Res"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.19030\/iber.v14i3.9207","article-title":"Life expectancy in Zimbabwe: an analysis of five decades","volume":"14","author":"Murwirapachena","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int Bus Econ Res J"},{"key":"ref24","first-page":"140","article-title":"Justifying the impact of economic deprivation, maternal status and health infrastructure on under-five child mortality in Pakistan: an empirical analysis","volume":"8","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull Bus Econ"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-015-1040-4","article-title":"The role of financial development and economic misery on life expectancy: evidence from post financial reforms in India","volume":"128","author":"Alam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4395","DOI":"10.1590\/1413-812320182412.25082019","article-title":"Economic crises, child mortality and the protective role of public health expenditure","volume":"24","author":"Tejada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cien Saude Colet"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2025-019134","article-title":"From poverty to health: intraurban inequalities in child health indicators in low-income and middle-income countries during the SDG era","volume":"10","author":"Tebeje","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1177\/22785337211015406","article-title":"Comparing the socioeconomic development of G7 and BRICS countries and resilience to COVID-19: an entropy\u2013MARCOS framework","volume":"10","author":"Biswas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bus Perspect Res"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3893","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S316844","article-title":"Public health expenditures and health outcomes in Pakistan: evidence from quantile autoregressive distributed lag model","volume":"14","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Risk Manag Healthc Policy"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.824073","article-title":"Analysis of the impact of external debt on health in an emerging Asian economy: does FDI matter?","volume":"10","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1108\/IJHG-03-2022-0027","article-title":"The effect of health expenditure on average life expectancy: does government effectiveness play a moderating role?","volume":"27","author":"Bunyaminu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Health Gov"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6128","DOI":"10.3390\/su16146128","article-title":"Influence of government effectiveness, health expenditure, and sustainable development goals on life expectancy: evidence from time series data","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1123759","article-title":"Government health expenditures and health outcome nexus: a study on OECD countries","volume":"11","author":"Anwar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2018.1150","article-title":"Health care spending in the United States and other high-income countries","volume":"319","author":"Papanicolas","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23177","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-53595-0","article-title":"Increasing the ecological footprint significantly reduces life expectancy and increases infant mortality rates in Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Ayitehgiza","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph21101379","article-title":"The impact of ecological footprint, urbanization, education, health expenditure, and industrialization on child mortality: insights for environment and public health in Eastern Europe","volume":"21","author":"Popescu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8224","DOI":"10.3390\/su15108224","article-title":"Ecological footprint and population health outcomes: evidence from E7 countries","volume":"15","author":"Biyase","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6824","DOI":"10.3390\/su13126824","article-title":"The nexus between sustainable economic development and government health expenditure in Asian countries based on ecological footprint consumption","volume":"13","author":"Gillani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sftr.2025.101639","article-title":"Examining the impact of ecological footprint on life expectancy in the MENA countries: a panel threshold analysis","volume":"11","author":"Jarallah","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sustain Futures"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7557","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-024-05265-2","article-title":"Examining the impact of ecological deficit on life expectancy in GCC countries: a nonlinear panel data investigation","volume":"28","author":"Jarallah","year":"2026","journal-title":"Environ Dev Sustain"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-13-27","article-title":"Reducing our environmental footprint and improving our health: greenhouse gas emission and land use of usual diet and mortality in EPIC-NL: a prospective cohort study","volume":"13","author":"Biesbroek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0312089","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0312089","article-title":"Health outcome convergence and the roles of public health financing and governance in Africa","volume":"19","author":"Mouteyica","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-025-12603-1","article-title":"Threshold effect of governance quality in the relationship between public health expenditure and life expectancy at birth in the west African economic and monetary union","volume":"25","author":"Boundioa","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv Res"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.3100","article-title":"An overview of healthcare systems in Comoros: the effects of two decades of political instability","volume":"87","author":"Mohamed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann Glob Health"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.05.014","article-title":"Politics and health in eight European countries: a comparative study of mortality decline under social democracies and right-wing governments","volume":"71","author":"Granados","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.22059\/ier.2023.329904.1007259","article-title":"Life expectancy in Indonesia: the role of health infrastructure, political, and socioeconomic status","volume":"27","author":"Setyadi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Iran Econ Rev"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2012.12.022","article-title":"Political conditions and life expectancy in Europe, 1900\u20132008","volume":"82","author":"Mackenbach","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.29063\/ajrh2023\/v27i12.7","article-title":"Political factors, household income, under five survival, and life expectancy in the Sahel region","volume":"27","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Afr J Reprod Health"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1880585","article-title":"Political instability and child anemia in Peru: a national interrupted time-series analysis, 2006\u20132024","volume":"14","author":"Vera-Ponce","year":"2026","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1186\/s12982-026-01537-6","article-title":"Modelling the impact of economic development, health-related factors and political instability on life expectancy in Somalia: an ARDL approach","volume":"23","author":"Dahir","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov Public Health"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.70694","article-title":"A gateway to SDG-3: tourism, institutional quality, and healthy life in BRICS","author":"Twumasi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sustain Dev"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s44155-026-00375-w","article-title":"The moderating role of health financing and national security policies in addressing the effects of COVID-19 risks and poverty on life expectancy in developing nations","volume":"6","author":"Manasseh","year":"2026","journal-title":"Discov Soc Sci Health"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21582440251324694","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440251324694","article-title":"Assessment of social development across age groups in Vietnam: employing the demographic metric of literate life expectancy","volume":"15","author":"Dang","year":"2025","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1007\/s13132-020-00678-6","article-title":"The causal links among economic growth, education and health: evidence from developed and developing countries","volume":"12","author":"Dhrifi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Knowl Econ"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s13209-019-0201-0","article-title":"The effect of education on health: evidence from national compulsory schooling reforms","volume":"11","author":"Fonseca","year":"2020","journal-title":"SERIEs"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2011.03.009","article-title":"Estimating the relation between health and education: what do we know and what do we need to know?","volume":"30","author":"Eide","year":"2011","journal-title":"Econ Educ Rev"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1007\/s12110-010-9092-2","article-title":"Examining the relationship between life expectancy, reproduction, and educational attainment","volume":"21","author":"Bulled","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum Nat"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-13656-1","article-title":"Global trends in total fertility rate and its relation to national wealth, life expectancy and female education","volume":"22","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-020-00402-5","article-title":"The influence of education on health: an empirical assessment of OECD countries for the period 1995\u20132015","volume":"78","author":"Raghupathi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch Public Health"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2024.103393","article-title":"Urban density and child health and wellbeing: a scoping review of the literature","volume":"91","author":"Dau","year":"2025","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1671-0_11","volume-title":"Genetics and Evolution of Aging","author":"Graves","year":"1994"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2019.112759","article-title":"Explaining the spatial variation in American life expectancy","volume":"246","author":"Dobis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-023-01960-0","article-title":"Contributions of the life expectancy gap reduction between urban and rural areas to the increase in overall life expectancy in South Korea from 2000 to 2019","volume":"22","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Equity Health"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19052900","article-title":"Assessing trade-offs and optimal ranges of density for life expectancy and 12 causes of mortality in metro Vancouver, Canada, 1990\u20132016","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-016-0538-y","article-title":"Place and child health: the interaction of population density and sanitation in developing countries","volume":"54","author":"Hathi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08905-0","article-title":"Environmental determinants of population health in urban settings. A systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Salgado","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-01214-4","article-title":"Life expectancy and mortality in 363 cities of Latin America","volume":"27","author":"Bilal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2022.101163","article-title":"Maternal human capital and infants\u2019 health outcomes: evidence from minimum dropout age policies in the US","volume":"19","author":"Noghanibehambari","year":"2022","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.70674","article-title":"Freezing economies, melting futures: the impact of sanctions on climate adaptation readiness\u2014panel evidence from 68 targeted developing countries","author":"Ko","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sustain Dev"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4000","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20054000","article-title":"Evaluating the influences of health expenditure, energy consumption, and environmental pollution on life expectancy in Asia","volume":"20","author":"Polcyn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9436","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19159436","article-title":"How does government efficiency affect health outcomes? The empirical evidence from 156 countries","volume":"19","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref72","first-page":"159","article-title":"Women\u2019s education, child welfare and child survival: a review of the evidence","volume":"3","author":"Hobcraft","year":"1993","journal-title":"Health Transit Rev"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.32479\/ijefi.8704","article-title":"Poverty and Health Outcomes \u0131n Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Ubi","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2007.05.010","article-title":"Testing slope homogeneity in large panels","volume":"142","author":"Hashem Pesaran","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1838213\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T04:34:58Z","timestamp":1789706098000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1838213\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"references-count":74,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1838213"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1838213","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"article-number":"1838213"}}