{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T15:46:48Z","timestamp":1782920808538,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Household air pollution (HAP) and smoking, as key environmental risk factors, substantially drive the growing global cataract burden and pose serious public health threats, especially in low- and middle-income regions. This study aimed to identify the trends, spatiotemporal patterns, and key influencing factors of cataract burden attributable to HAP and smoking during 1990\u20132021, and further project its future trends until 2050.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Based on Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2021 data, we computed years lived with disability (YLDs) and age-standardized YLD rates (ASYRs) by age, gender and the Socio-demographic Index (SDI). We employed decomposition analysis to identify drivers of temporal changes, frontier analysis to assess achievable health outcomes, and inequality metrics to evaluate disparities. Future burdens were forecasted using the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Globally, there were 1,956,323.97 (95% UI: 612,092.84\u20134,033,705.23) and 225,174.47 (95% UI: 160,701.43\u2013315,104.99) YLDs due to cataract attributable to HAP and smoking in 2021, respectively, both more than in 1990. Moreover, the ASYRs of cataract attributable to HAP and smoking were 22.84 (95% UI: 7.15\u201347.05) and 2.60 (95% UI: 1.85\u20133.63) per 100,000 population in 2021, respectively. Regionally, the highest ASYRs of cataract attributable to HAP and smoking were in Oceania (75.98) and South Asia (5.64), respectively. The cataract YLDs linked to HAP and smoking were predominantly found in middle-aged and older adult populations. Males had a higher smoking-attributable cataract burden than females, whereas females faced a substantial HAP-attributable burden. Low SDI regions exhibited a higher disease burden, with persistent cross-country disparities in health outcomes. Decomposition analysis pinpointed population growth as the core contributing factor. Frontier analysis revealed that countries such as Pakistan were farthest from the cataract burden frontier. ARIMA projections show HAP-related cataract ASYR will fall from 22.71 per 100,000 (2022) to 11.18 per 100,000 (2050, \u221250.77%), and smoking-attributable ASYR from 2.53 per 100,000 to 1.08 per 100,000 (\u221257.31%).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite the observed decline in cataract burden attributable to HAP and smoking from 1990 to 2021, disparities among different sociodemographic regions and sexes were remarkable, and the potential future risks underscore the necessity for continued air quality management and tobacco control measures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1842269","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T15:04:09Z","timestamp":1782918249000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Global, regional, and national cataract burden attributable to household air pollution and smoking (1990\u20132021) and projection to 2050"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Qunwu","family":"Tan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Wushan County People's Hospital of Chongqing","place":["Wushan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otolaryngology, Wushan County People's Hospital of Chongqing","place":["Wushan, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01839-6","article-title":"Cataracts","volume":"401","author":"Cicinelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2093","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2025.1597","article-title":"Cataracts: a review","volume":"333","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0326263","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0326263","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of cataract: a comprehensive analysis and projections from 1990 to 2021","volume":"20","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"P1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.10.006","article-title":"American Academy of ophthalmology preferred practice pattern cataract\/anterior segment panel. Cataract in the adult eye preferred practice pattern","volume":"129","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo-2025-327776","article-title":"Global trends in cataract burden: a 30-year epidemiological analysis and prediction of 2050 from the global burden of disease 2021 study","volume":"110","author":"Jiang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30544-5","article-title":"Cataracts","volume":"390","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1534863","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1534863","article-title":"Prevalence and main factors influencing anxiety symptoms in Chinese older adults with cataracts: a national cross-sectional survey","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Psych"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13113081","article-title":"Depression and eye disease-a narrative review of common underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and their potential applications","volume":"13","author":"Tang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.1416","article-title":"Risk assessment and prevention of falls in older community-dwelling adults: a review","volume":"331","author":"Col\u00f3n-Emeric","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2024.102407","article-title":"Aging of the eye: lessons from cataracts and age-related macular degeneration","volume":"99","author":"Cvekl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3885","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-9820","article-title":"Smoking and risk of age-related cataract: a meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Ye","year":"2012","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2022.137037","article-title":"Indoor air pollution and human ocular diseases: associated contaminants and underlying pathological mechanisms","volume":"311","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.4.49","article-title":"The complications of myopia: a review and Meta-analysis","volume":"61","author":"Haarman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.13892","article-title":"Cataract and systemic disease: a review","volume":"49","author":"Ang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Experiment Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0300","article-title":"The ageing lens and cataract: a model of normal and pathological ageing","volume":"366","author":"Michael","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1159\/000027475","article-title":"The ageing lens","volume":"214","author":"Bron","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ophthalmologica"},{"key":"ref17","year":""},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)02840-X","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of household air pollution, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"405","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9020","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-38186-3","article-title":"Impact of household air pollution on under 5 mortalities and ARI in Sub Saharan Africa: evidence from demographic and health survey 2010-2020","volume":"16","author":"Joseph","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.08.026","article-title":"Global estimation of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from household air pollution","volume":"120","author":"Shupler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e41914","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000041914","article-title":"Time trends in disability-adjusted life years for cataracts attributable to indoor air pollution across 17 low- and middle-income countries","volume":"104","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyi015","article-title":"Case-control study of indoor cooking smoke exposure and cataract in Nepal and India","volume":"34","author":"Pokhrel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.60.8.612","article-title":"Oxidative stress: its role in air pollution and adverse health effects","volume":"60","author":"Kelly","year":"2003","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1159\/000316481","article-title":"Oxidative damage and the prevention of age-related cataracts","volume":"44","author":"Beebe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Res"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP193","article-title":"Use of cooking fuels and cataract in a population-based study: the India eye disease study","volume":"124","author":"Ravilla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.104154","article-title":"Appraising the causal role of smoking in multiple diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of Mendelian randomization studies","volume":"82","author":"Larsson","year":"2022","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2337","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)01169-7","article-title":"Spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns in prevalence of smoking tobacco use and attributable disease burden in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis from the global burden of disease study 2019","volume":"397","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(19)30257-7","article-title":"Smoking cessation efforts should target LMICs","volume":"7","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1308383","article-title":"Global effects of smoking, of quitting, and of taxing tobacco","volume":"370","author":"Jha","year":"2014","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612822666161129152041","article-title":"Smoking and eye pathologies. A systemic review. Part I. Anterior eye segment pathologies","volume":"23","author":"Nita","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Pharm Des"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1097\/ICU.0b013e32834bbe7a","article-title":"Effects of smoking on ocular health","volume":"22","author":"Galor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr Opin Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-21573-2","article-title":"Global, regional, and national burden of blindness and vision loss attributable to smoking from 1990 to 2021, and forecasts to 2030: findings from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"25","author":"Zeng","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.284.6.713","article-title":"Smoking cessation and risk of age-related cataract in men","volume":"284","author":"Christen","year":"2000","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1992.03490080063025","article-title":"A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of cataract in men","volume":"268","author":"Christen","year":"1992","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e47779","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.47779","article-title":"Through the smoke: an in-depth review on cigarette smoking and its impact on ocular health","volume":"15","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199505043321804","article-title":"Increase in circulating products of lipid peroxidation (F2-isoprostanes) in smokers. Smoking as a cause of oxidative damage","volume":"332","author":"Morrow","year":"1995","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4439(94)90039-6","article-title":"Binding of glucose, galactose and pyridoxal phosphate to lens crystallins","volume":"1226","author":"Ganea","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4165(93)90003-q","article-title":"The reaction of malondialdehyde with lens proteins and the protective effect of aspirin","volume":"1158","author":"Riley","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.79.3.202","article-title":"Smoking of beedies and cataract: cadmium and vitamin C in the lens and blood","volume":"79","author":"Ramakrishnan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1159\/000266248","article-title":"Cadmium, lead and copper concentrations in normal and senile cataractous human lenses","volume":"20","author":"R\u00e1cz","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Res"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3109\/02713680903362880","article-title":"Lens cadmium, lead, and serum vitamins C, E, and beta carotene in cataractous smoking patients","volume":"35","author":"Mosad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/210411","article-title":"Global burden of vision impairment due to smoking-related cataract: a descriptive study of spatiotemporal trends based on GBD secondary data and projections to 2050","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Tob Induc Dis"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00757-8","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990-2021: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"403","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e729","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(24)00166-X","article-title":"Forecasting the effects of smoking prevalence scenarios on years of life lost and life expectancy from 2022 to 2050: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"9","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-025-03743-z","article-title":"Global prevalence and years lived with disability (YLDs) of cataract in 204 countries and territories: findings from the global burden of disease study 2021","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"ref46","article-title":"Global burden of disease study 2021 (GBD 2021) socio-demographic index (SDI) 1950\u20132021","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4076(96)01807-6","article-title":"Socioeconomic inequalities in health: measurement, computation, and statistical inference","volume":"77","author":"Kakwani","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Econ"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.0.0060","article-title":"Revisiting das Gupta: refinement and extension of standardization and decomposition","volume":"46","author":"Chevan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1682413","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1682413","article-title":"Global burden and trends of occupational noise-induced hearing loss (1990-2021) and projection to 2040","volume":"13","author":"Gong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2019.04.013","article-title":"A smart system for short-term price prediction using time series models","volume":"76","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput Electr Eng"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-021-01235-8","article-title":"Interrupted time series analysis using autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models: a guide for evaluating large-scale health interventions","volume":"21","author":"Schaffer","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30388-9","article-title":"Guidelines for accurate and transparent health estimates reporting: the GATHER statement","volume":"388","author":"Stevens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-02806-0","article-title":"Reductions in smoking due to ratification of the framework convention for tobacco control in 171 countries","volume":"30","author":"Paraje","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.10.097","article-title":"Status of indoor air pollution (IAP) through particulate matter (PM) emissions and associated health concerns in South Asia","volume":"191","author":"Junaid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-020-00902-4","article-title":"Household air pollution and under-five mortality in sub-Saharan Africa: an analysis of 14 demographic and health surveys","volume":"25","author":"Bickton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Health Prev Med"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.11.015","article-title":"Assessment of traditional and improved stove use on household air pollution and personal exposures in rural western Kenya","volume":"99","author":"Yip","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e535","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(22)00090-0","article-title":"Pollution and health: a progress update","volume":"6","author":"Fuller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201311-413OC","article-title":"A cross-sectional study of household biomass fuel use among a periurban population in Malawi","volume":"11","author":"Piddock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/10962247.2025.2587009","article-title":"Environmental justice and rural poverty: socioeconomic drivers of environmental impact in the Indian Sundarbans","volume":"76","author":"Roy","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Air Waste Manag Assoc"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1744","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(22)00419-3","article-title":"Effective cataract surgical coverage in adults aged 50 years and older: estimates from population-based surveys in 55 countries","volume":"10","author":"McCormick","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2010.042309","article-title":"Social and cultural influences on tobacco-related health disparities among south Asians in the USA","volume":"21","author":"Mukherjea","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tob Control"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s12963-014-0022-0","article-title":"Smoking and smokeless tobacco use in nine south and southeast Asian countries: prevalence estimates and social determinants from demographic and health surveys","volume":"12","author":"Sreeramareddy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Popul Health Metrics"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2021-057013","article-title":"South Asia\u2019s evolving tobacco hydra: moving from quandary to hope","volume":"31","author":"Gupta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tob Control"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrs.2009.01.002","article-title":"Incidence of post-cataract endophthalmitis at Aravind eye hospital: outcomes of more than 42,000 consecutive cases using standardized sterilization and prophylaxis protocols","volume":"35","author":"Ravindran","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Cataract Refract Surg"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1080\/17441690903539541","article-title":"Eliminating cataract blindness - how do we apply lessons from Asia to sub-Saharan Africa?","volume":"5","author":"Lewallen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob Public Health"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e266","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30036-0","article-title":"Reducing adolescent smoking in India","volume":"5","author":"Barua","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-022-02662-0","article-title":"Prevalence and trend of smokeless tobacco use and its associated factors among adolescents aged 12-16 years in 138 countries\/territories, 1999-2019","volume":"20","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e795","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(16)30187-5","article-title":"Tobacco use and second-hand smoke exposure in young adolescents aged 12-15 years: data from 68 low-income and middle-income countries","volume":"4","author":"Xi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.07.002","article-title":"Women and girls in resource poor countries experience much greater exposure to household air pollutants than men: results from Uganda and Ethiopia","volume":"119","author":"Okello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2010.147","article-title":"Smoking, socioeconomic factors, and age-related cataract: the Singapore Malay eye study","volume":"128","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1950257","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/1950257","article-title":"Gender- and age-related differences of ocular biometric parameters in patients undergoing cataract surgery in Bosnia and Herzegovina","volume":"2023","author":"Zvorni\u010danin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1097\/j.jcrs.0000000000001435","article-title":"Biometric description of 34\u202f589 eyes undergoing cataract surgery: sex differences","volume":"50","author":"Jim\u00e9nez-Garc\u00eda","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Cataract Refract Surg"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2003.09.015","article-title":"17Beta-estradiol confers a protective effect against transforming growth factor-beta2-induced cataracts in female but not male lenses","volume":"78","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.10.079905","article-title":"Gender empowerment and female-to-male smoking prevalence ratios","volume":"89","author":"Hitchman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref75","first-page":"45","article-title":"Association between cataract and cotinine-verified smoking status in 11\u202f435 Korean adults using Korea National Health and nutrition examination survey data from 2008 to 2016","volume":"46","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Cataract Refract Surg"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2004.12.007","article-title":"Age-related nuclear cataract-oxidation is the key","volume":"80","author":"Truscott","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrs.2005.06.039","article-title":"Smoking and cataract: review of causal association","volume":"31","author":"Kelly","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Cataract Refract Surg"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.87.9.1112","article-title":"Risk factors for nuclear, cortical and posterior subcapsular cataracts in the Chinese population of Singapore: the Tanjong Pagar survey","volume":"87","author":"Foster","year":"2003","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1097\/S1741-8267(03)12303-1","article-title":"Prevalence and predictors of smoking in Pakistan: results of the National Health Survey of Pakistan","volume":"12","author":"Ahmad","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Public Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1842269\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T15:04:11Z","timestamp":1782918251000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1842269\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"references-count":79,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1842269"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1842269","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-2565"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-2565","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"article-number":"1842269"}}