{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T15:02:06Z","timestamp":1785423726016,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The policy question for COVID-19 vaccination has shifted from whether vaccines induce protection to how long clinically meaningful protection persists and how immune information should guide preparedness. This question is especially relevant to Saudi Arabia, where Hajj and Umrah create predictable periods of dense population mixing among pilgrims with diverse vaccination histories, prior infection exposures, ages, and comorbidity profiles. This structured narrative review synthesizes evidence on durability of COVID-19 vaccine-induced immunity, Saudi epidemiological and serological data, heterologous booster strategies, hybrid immunity, and operational implications for mass-gathering preparedness. A structured search of biomedical databases and public-health sources was undertaken for evidence published from January 2020 to May 2026. The review highlights those circulating antibodies and neutralizing activity decline after vaccination, particularly against antigenically divergent variants, whereas memory B-cell responses and CD4+\u202fand CD8+\u202fT-cell immunity generally provide more durable protection against severe disease. Saudi evidence remains limited but informative: national seroprevalence studies, vaccine-rollout data, clinical-effectiveness analyses, and recent serological work indicate substantial prior exposure, strong post-vaccination antibody responses, and meaningful protection against hospitalization and intensive-care admission, particularly after booster dosing. Heterologous schedules and hybrid immunity appear to broaden immune protection, but their policy relevance lies in flexible risk-based planning rather than in promoting infection as a strategy. For Hajj and Umrah, the main implication is a shift from simple dose counting toward immune durability, risk stratification, booster timing, vaccination documentation, genomic surveillance, and integrated respiratory-virus monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1853635","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T05:52:13Z","timestamp":1784699533000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Durability of COVID-19 vaccine-induced immunity in Saudi Arabia: evidence, gaps, and implications for Hajj and mass-gathering preparedness"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Leena E.","family":"Azhar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Sciences Department, MBBS Program, Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Fakeeh Care Group","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahdab A.","family":"Alsaieedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Infectious Agents Unit BSL-3, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariam M.","family":"AlEissa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Department of Medicine, Alfaisal University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hussain A.","family":"Baroom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Biology Department, Jeddah Regional Laboratory, Ministry of Health","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amro H.","family":"Alghoraibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Biology Department, Jeddah Regional Laboratory, Ministry of Health","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khalid S.","family":"Alzahrani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular Biology Department, Jeddah Regional Laboratory, Ministry of Health","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esam I.","family":"Azhar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Special Infectious Agents Unit BSL-3, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University","place":["Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"]},{"name":"Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University","place":["Jeddah, Saudi 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