{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T05:04:50Z","timestamp":1789535090211,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the association of education, government effectiveness, health expenditure, economic growth, and urbanization with life expectancy in South Asia within Grossman\u2019s health capital framework. Using annual panel data for seven South Asian countries\u2014Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka\u2014over 2000\u20132025, the analysis investigates both long-run and short-run relationships. The empirical strategy combines panel unit root tests, panel ARDL estimation, Driscoll\u2013Kraay standard errors, PCSE, FGLS, System GMM, and bootstrap panel causality tests. The results indicate a stable long-run relationship among the variables. Education, measured by school enrollment and adult literacy, is positively and significantly associated with life expectancy. GDP per capita also shows a positive and significant association. Health expenditure has a positive but model-sensitive association, suggesting that the effectiveness of spending may matter more than its level alone. By contrast, government effectiveness and urbanization are significantly associated with life expectancy but with negative coefficients in the estimated models. Bootstrap causality results indicate dynamic links between life expectancy and several explanatory variables. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of education, inclusive growth, efficient health spending, and better-managed urban development in shaping longevity across South Asia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2026.1866937","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T04:34:17Z","timestamp":1789533257000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The health production function in South Asia: panel evidence on education, health expenditure, governance, and longevity"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Ridwan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]},{"name":"ARUCAD Research Centre, Arkin University of Creative Arts and Design","place":["Mersin, T\u00fcrkiye"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zulfiquar Ali","family":"Antor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Noakhali Science and Technology University","place":["Noakhali, Bangladesh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Comparative and International Studies, ETH Zurich","place":["Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"]},{"name":"Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam","place":["Rotterdam, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Md. Emran","family":"Hossain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Research Centre, European University of Lefke, Lefke, Northern Cyprus","place":["Mersin, T\u00fcrkiye"]},{"name":"Jadara Research Center, Jadara University","place":["Irbid, Jordan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chun Kai","family":"Leung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Society and Sustainability Lab, University of Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wai-Kit","family":"Ming","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Ziaur","family":"Rehman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, King Saud University","place":["Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1086\/259880","article-title":"On the concept of health capital and the demand for health","volume":"80","author":"Grossman","year":"1972","journal-title":"J Polit Econ"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/su16146128","article-title":"Influence of government effectiveness, health expenditure, and sustainable development goals on life expectancy: evidence from time series data","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36967","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-18180-0","article-title":"Analyzing the impact of energy consumption, the democratic process, and government service delivery on life expectancy: evidence from a global sample","volume":"29","author":"Salehnia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Sci Pollut Res"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18168559","article-title":"Impacts from economic development and environmental factors on life expectancy: a comparative study based on data from both developed and developing countries from 2004 to 2016","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20054000","article-title":"Evaluating the influences of health expenditure, energy consumption, and environmental pollution on life expectancy in Asia","volume":"20","author":"Polcyn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2024.105466","article-title":"Association between education and disability-free life expectancy among Japanese older people: the Ohsaki cohort 2006 study","volume":"125","author":"Inomata","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbac169","article-title":"Educational differences in life expectancies with and without pain","volume":"78","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Gerontol Ser B"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2023.101461","article-title":"Age and cause-of-death contributions to educational inequalities in life expectancy and lifespan variation in a low-mortality country: a cross-sectional study of 1.67 million deaths in Spain (2016\u201319)","volume":"23","author":"Trias-Llim\u00f3s","year":"2023","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1605790","article-title":"Effect of female literacy rate and education on infant mortality in Peru, 2001\u20132022","volume":"13","author":"Quispe Mamani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e448","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000001305","article-title":"Examining how National Levels of life expectancy, education, and income influence early childhood development: the mediating role of the child\u2019s nurturing context","volume":"45","author":"Rothenberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Dev Behav Pediatr"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e20251","article-title":"What is the role of institutional quality in health outcomes? 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