{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T12:14:25Z","timestamp":1789992865523,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite widespread pneumococcal vaccination programmes, the disease remains a leading cause of paediatric morbidity and mortality globally. Persistent barriers, including limited vaccine access and coverage, cold-chain constraints, and delayed or inaccurate diagnosis, disproportionately affect rural communities, primary healthcare settings, and populations with low socioeconomic status. These same settings typically lack the radiological expertise required for timely diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Problem<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Traditionally, diagnosis is done through chest X-ray interpretation by trained paediatricians or radiologists, who are rarely available in remote or resource-limited facilities. Artificial intelligence (AI)-aided diagnostic tools offer a potential pathway to address these gaps, enabling timely and accurate diagnosis, improved access, appropriate treatment, reduced human suffering, and potential cost-savings for healthcare providers and families.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Evidence gap<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To date, very few studies have evaluated AI-driven diagnostic tools specifically for pneumococcal infections focusing on children. Additionally, existing research is characterised by multiple shortcomings such as limited population diversity, small sample sizes, lack of external validation, absence of standardised reporting, and a hospital-centric focus that overlooks primary and community care and low-resource settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Proposed approach<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Given the many unanswered questions, we propose a transparent comprehensive systematic scoping review to identify and synthesise relevant existing and emerging body of literature in this field with a focus on children. The review will map the extent, range, and nature of available evidence, identify critical gaps, and assess the scope of validation and implementation research to date. It will also provide a framework for the economic analysis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Future research must move beyond isolated proof-of-concept studies toward a coherent, transparent, collaborative, and evidence-driven agenda. This agenda should include rigorous economic evaluations to fully understand resource implications for healthcare providers, health systems, and societies, particularly in low-resource settings where the potential impact of AI-driven diagnostics could be greatest.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2026.1866941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T11:47:39Z","timestamp":1789991259000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["AI-driven diagnosis of pneumococcal infections in children\u2014a call for primary-care focused and a coherent evidence base"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Morro M. L.","family":"Touray","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Cardiff University","place":["Cardiff, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mirella","family":"Longo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Cardiff University","place":["Cardiff, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aftab","family":"Ala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kings College Hospital","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joaquin M.","family":"Prada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Surrey Institute for People-Centred AI, University of Surrey","place":["Guildford, United Kingdom"]},{"name":"Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey","place":["Guildford, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dembo","family":"Kanteh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Strategic Services, MRC Unit The Gambia at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine","place":["Banjul, Gambia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Uma U.","family":"Onwuchekwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Vaccine Development-Mali, Ex-Institut Marchoux","place":["Bamako, Mali"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Surrey Institute for People-Centred AI, University of Surrey","place":["Guildford, United Kingdom"]},{"name":"Centre of Excellence on Ageing, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey","place":["Guildford, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.08.02.21261497","article-title":"The cost of illness for childhood clinical pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in Nigeria","author":"Adamu","year":"2021","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e138","DOI":"10.1097\/gh9.0000000000000138","article-title":"Diagnosing the disparities: an analysis of the current state of medical imaging in Africa and strategies for improvement: a correspondence","volume":"6","author":"Aderinto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Surg. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"866643","DOI":"10.3389\/fradi.2022.866643","article-title":"Emergency Teleradiology-past, present, and, is there a future?","volume":"2","author":"Agrawal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Radiol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-020-00584-1","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in health care: laying the foundation for responsible, sustainable, and inclusive innovation in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"16","author":"Alami","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2020.00759","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and machine learning applied at the point of care","volume":"11","author":"Angehrn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01722-y","article-title":"Systematic review of cost effectiveness and budget impact of artificial intelligence in healthcare","volume":"8","author":"Arab","year":"2025","journal-title":"Npj Digit. Med."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6328","DOI":"10.22605\/rrh6328","article-title":"A case for mandatory ultrasound training for rural general practitioners: a commentary","volume":"21","author":"Arnold","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rural Remote Health"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1089\/tmj.2016.0149","article-title":"The empirical foundations of teleradiology and related applications: a review of the evidence","volume":"22","author":"Bashshur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Telemed. J. E Health"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1590\/s1519-38292001000300003","article-title":"Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI): an innovative vision for child health care","volume":"1","author":"Benguigui","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Saude Mater. Infant."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.34172\/ijhpm.2020.244","article-title":"Methods for the economic evaluation of health care interventions for priority setting in the health system: an update from WHO CHOICE","volume":"10","author":"Bertram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Policy Manag."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s12962-017-0083-6","article-title":"Disease control programme support costs: an update of WHO-CHOICE methodology, price databases and quantity assumptions","volume":"15","author":"Bertram","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cost Eff. Resour. Alloc."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1097\/ede.0000000000000598","article-title":"Improving assessments of population-level vaccine impact","volume":"28","author":"Bruhn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s13643-023-02178-5","article-title":"Mapping reviews, scoping reviews, and evidence and gap maps (EGMs): the same but different\u2014 the \u201cbig picture\u201d review family","volume":"12","author":"Campbell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3757","DOI":"10.1097\/ms9.0000000000000959","article-title":"Advances in artificial intelligence (AI)-based diagnosis in clinical practice\u2014correspondence","volume":"85","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.09.09.20191650","article-title":"Oxygen saturation or breathlessness? \u2013 how best to predict pneumonia in patients presenting with a cough to primary care","author":"Chambers","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0219463","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219463","article-title":"Correlation between chest radiographic findings and clinical features in hospitalized children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia","volume":"14","author":"Cho","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4043","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202339904043","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in healthcare: diagnosis, treatment, and prediction","volume":"399","author":"Devi","year":"2023","journal-title":"E3S Web of Conferences"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s41747-018-0071-4","article-title":"Big data, artificial intelligence, and structured reporting","volume":"2","author":"dos Santos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Radiol. Exp."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ofab632","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab632","article-title":"Adapting serosurveys for the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine era","volume":"9","author":"Duarte","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.2.7","article-title":"A clinician\u2019s guide to artificial intelligence: how to critically appraise machine learning studies","volume":"9","author":"Faes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Vis. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.21287","article-title":"Radiographic findings among children hospitalized with severe community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"45","author":"Ferrero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20193900","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-3900","article-title":"Sticking by an imperfect standard: chest radiography for pediatric community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"145","author":"Florin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5195\/philmed.2021.27","article-title":"Randomized controlled trials in medical AI a methodological critique","volume":"2","author":"Genin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Philos. Med."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD010123","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.cd010123.pub2","article-title":"Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) strategy for children under five","volume":"2016","author":"Gera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Libr"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1849","DOI":"10.1016\/s2214-109x(23)00463-1","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and pneumonia: a rapidly evolving frontier","volume":"11","author":"Ginsburg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2020-107166","article-title":"Randomised controlled trials in medical AI: ethical considerations","volume":"48","author":"Grote","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Ethics"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.09.12.23295381","article-title":"Randomized controlled trials evaluating AI in clinical practice: a scoping evaluation","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e39748","DOI":"10.2196\/39748","article-title":"The impact of artificial intelligence on health equity in oncology: scoping review","volume":"24","author":"Istasy","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s44163-022-00022-8","article-title":"Quo vadis artificial intelligence?","volume":"2","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Discov. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1478-7547-1-1","article-title":"Programme costs in the economic evaluation of health interventions","volume":"1","author":"Johns","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cost Eff Resour Alloc"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e37833","DOI":"10.2196\/37833","article-title":"Implementation of machine learning pipelines for clinical practice: development and validation study","volume":"10","author":"Kanbar","year":"2022","journal-title":"JMIR Med. Inform."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2020.10.009","article-title":"Conducting high quality scoping reviews-challenges and solutions","volume":"130","author":"Khalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2006.13808","article-title":"Role of edge device and cloud machine learning in point-of-care solutions using imaging diagnostics for population screening","author":"Kharat","year":"2020","journal-title":"arXiv (Cornell University)."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/15.2.230","article-title":"The real and the nominal? Making inflationary adjustments to cost and other economic data","volume":"15","author":"Kumaranayake","year":"2000","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0249399","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0249399","article-title":"Diagnostic performance of artificial intelligence model for pneumonia from chest radiography","volume":"16","author":"Kwon","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.2.14286\/v1","article-title":"Predicting the microbial cause of community-acquired pneumonia: can physicians or a data-driven method differentiate viral from bacterial pneumonia at patient presentation?","author":"Lhommet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Research Square"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-020-1089-y","article-title":"Predicting the microbial cause of community-acquired pneumonia: can physicians or a data-driven method differentiate viral from bacterial pneumonia at patient presentation?","volume":"20","author":"Lhommet","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Pulm. Med."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-712876\/v1","article-title":"Pneumococcal conjugate vaccination schedules acquisition, immunogenicity and pneumococcal conjugate and yellow fever vaccine co-administration study","author":"Mackenzie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Research Square"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0043-1768733","article-title":"Automation in contemporary clinical information systems: a survey of AI in healthcare settings","volume":"32","author":"Magrabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Yearb. Med. Inform."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1002\/(sici)1099-0496(199909)28:3<>3.0.co;2-r221","article-title":"Necrotizing pneumococcal pneumonia in childhood","volume":"28","author":"McCarthy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"s3","DOI":"10.1017\/ash.2023.212","article-title":"Fear of missing organisms (FOMO): diabetic foot and osteomyelitis management opportunities","volume":"3","author":"Morelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Steward. Healthc. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1186\/s12961-024-01165-z","article-title":"Applying the WHO-INTEGRATE evidence-to-decision framework in the development of WHO guidelines on parenting interventions: step-by-step process and lessons learnt","volume":"22","author":"Movsisyan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Health Res Policy Syst"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-021-02660-9","article-title":"A safe protocol to identify low-risk patients with COVID-19 pneumonia for outpatient management","volume":"16","author":"Mu\u00f1oz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1186\/s12961-022-00901-7","article-title":"Using the WHO-INTEGRATE evidence-to-decision framework to develop recommendations for induction of labour","volume":"20","author":"Murano","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Res Policy Syst"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-29373\/v3","article-title":"Artificial intelligence for good health: a scoping review of the ethics literature","author":"Murphy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Research Square"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0305949","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0305949","article-title":"A comprehensive overview of barriers and strategies for AI implementation in healthcare: mixed-method design","volume":"19","author":"Nair","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref47","volume-title":"Fit For The Future: 10 Year Health Plan for England","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.05.04.21256541","article-title":"Evidence-to-decision frameworks: a review and analysis to inform decision-making for environmental health interventions","author":"Norris","year":"2021","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-022-05368-w","article-title":"Pediatric chest radiograph interpretation: how far has artificial intelligence come? A systematic literature review","volume":"52","author":"Padash","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Radiol."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1097\/xeb.0000000000000277","article-title":"Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews","volume":"19","author":"Peters","year":"2021","journal-title":"JBI Evid. Implement."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1086\/499363","article-title":"Laboratory medicine in Africa: a barrier to effective health care","volume":"42","author":"Petti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2024.111572","article-title":"\u201cHow-to\u201d: scoping review?","volume":"176","author":"Pollock","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e258","DOI":"10.3399\/bjgp.2020.0750","article-title":"Diagnosing community-acquired pneumonia via a smartphone-based algorithm: a prospective cohort study in primary and acute-care consultations","volume":"71","author":"Porter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Gen. Pract."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.07.06.21259221","article-title":"Diagnostic errors are common in acute pediatric respiratory disease: a prospective, single-blinded multicenter diagnostic accuracy study in Australian emergency departments","author":"Porter","year":"2021","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2013-305429","article-title":"Ending preventable child deaths from pneumonia and diarrhoea by 2025. Development of the integrated global action plan for the prevention and control of pneumonia and diarrhoea","volume":"100","author":"Qazi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2025.108802","article-title":"Machine learning-based approaches for distinguishing viral and bacterial pneumonia in paediatrics: a scoping review","volume":"268","author":"Rickard","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Prog. Biomed."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0257993","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0257993","article-title":"Multistep antimicrobial stewardship intervention on antibiotic prescriptions and treatment duration in children with pneumonia","volume":"16","author":"Rossin","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"010101","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.03.010101","article-title":"Reducing mortality from childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea: the leading priority is also the greatest opportunity","volume":"3","author":"Rudan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"04073","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.11.04073","article-title":"Global health radiology planning using geographic information systems to identify populations with decreased access to care","volume":"11","author":"Sachdev","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1177\/1062860609337900","article-title":"Assessing quality indicators for pediatric community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"24","author":"Sandora","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Qual."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.5195\/ijms.2024.2626","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in medicine and medical education: current applications, challenges, and future directions","volume":"12","author":"Sarkar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Stud."},{"key":"ref62","first-page":"65","article-title":"Radiological services in rural mission hospitals in Ghana","volume":"73","author":"Sekiguchi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10215","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14519-w","article-title":"Diagnostic performance of artificial intelligence approved for adults for the interpretation of pediatric chest radiographs","volume":"12","author":"Shin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-023-02551-0","article-title":"Robotics in healthcare: a survey","volume":"5","author":"Silvera-Tawil","year":"2024","journal-title":"SN Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2024.2425712","article-title":"Role of artificial intelligence in early diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases","volume":"57","author":"Srivastava","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s12962-018-0095-x","article-title":"Econometric estimation of WHO-CHOICE country-specific costs for inpatient and outpatient health service delivery","volume":"16","author":"Stenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cost Eff Resour Alloc"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0000713","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pdig.0000713","article-title":"Detection of pneumonia in children through chest radiographs using artificial intelligence in a low-resource setting: a pilot study","volume":"4","author":"Togunwa","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1007\/s40273-021-01054-1","article-title":"Economic analyses of respiratory tract infection diagnostics: a systematic review","volume":"39","author":"van der Pol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacoeconomics"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1030194","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2022.1030194","article-title":"Implementation of health technology: directions for research and practice","volume":"4","author":"van Gemert-Pijnen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"qxaf023","DOI":"10.1093\/haschl\/qxaf023","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in global health: an unfair future for health in sub-Saharan Africa?","volume":"3","author":"Victor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Health Affairs Scholar"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.20258","article-title":"Radiographic follow-up of pneumonia in children","volume":"40","author":"Virkki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1220950","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1220950","article-title":"Economic evaluations of artificial intelligence-based healthcare interventions: a systematic literature review of best practices in their conduct and reporting","volume":"14","author":"Vithlani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.88.5.457","article-title":"Are follow up chest x ray examinations helpful in the management of children recovering from pneumonia?","volume":"88","author":"Wacogne","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e18899","DOI":"10.2196\/18899","article-title":"Addressing care continuity and quality challenges in the management of hypertension: case study of the private health care sector in Kenya","volume":"23","author":"Walcott-Bryant","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.06.07.24308483","article-title":"Policy perspectives on the sustainable introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines in middle-income countries","author":"Weeks","year":"2024","journal-title":"medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)."},{"key":"ref76","first-page":"131","volume-title":"Design and Evaluation of An Intranasal Carbohydrate-based Vaccine against","author":"Wei","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2412.03576","article-title":"Ethical challenges and evolving strategies in the integration of artificial intelligence into clinical practice","author":"Weiner","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv (Cornell University)."},{"key":"ref78","first-page":"1100","volume-title":"The Lancet Infectious Diseases","author":"Whitney","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1141","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-1614","article-title":"Narrow vs broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy for children hospitalized with pneumonia","volume":"132","author":"Williams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.38212\/2224-6614.3570","article-title":"Economic evaluation of AI-assisted technologies in healthcare: a systematic review","volume":"33","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00614-9","article-title":"Machine learning generalizability across healthcare settings: insights from multi-site COVID-19 screening","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Npj Digital Medicine"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e25759","DOI":"10.2196\/25759","article-title":"Role of artificial intelligence applications in real-life clinical practice: systematic review","volume":"23","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arxiv.2305.03219","article-title":"All models are local: time to replace external validation with recurrent local validation","author":"Youssef","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv (Cornell University)."},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e230606","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.230606","article-title":"Deep learning for automated triaging of stable chest radiographs in a follow-up setting","volume":"309","author":"Yun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2024.103934","article-title":"Clinical applications of artificial intelligence in identification and management of bacterial infection: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Zubair","year":"2024","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1866941\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T11:47:41Z","timestamp":1789991261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1866941\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"references-count":85,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frai.2026.1866941"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1866941","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-8212"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-8212","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"article-number":"1866941"}}