{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T09:14:13Z","timestamp":1788340453857,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Armed conflict and forced displacement disrupt the safety, caregiving, education, and healthcare essential for healthy child development, placing children and adolescents at increased risk for adverse mental health outcomes. This narrative review summarizes the psychological consequences of war and displacement and highlights trauma-informed interventions across different stages of recovery.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A narrative review of the literature was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar. Studies published between January 2000, and January 2025 were identified using keywords related to children, adolescents, armed conflict, war, forced displacement, refugee populations, mental health outcomes, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and psychosocial interventions. Relevant English-language articles addressing psychological outcomes and intervention strategies among conflict-affected youth were reviewed and synthesized.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Across studies, exposure to armed conflict and displacement was consistently associated with elevated rates of PTSD, depression, anxiety, behavioral disturbances, sleep problems, and impaired social functioning. Mental health effects were observed during acute crises and often persisted long after conflict exposure, increasing the risk of chronic psychiatric disorders and intergenerational transmission of trauma. Protective factors included stable caregiving relationships, educational continuity, social support, and access to community-based psychosocial services. However, significant disparities in service availability and accessibility were reported, particularly among displaced and refugee populations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Armed conflict and forced displacement harm children through direct trauma exposure, disrupted caregiving, loss of educational and social structure, chronic deprivation, and barriers to care, with effects that persist well beyond the acute phase. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy and narrative exposure therapy have the strongest supporting evidence but are the least scalable in active conflict, whereas group and non-specialist approaches offer reach with more variable effects. Intergenerational transmission is best supported for psychological, familial, and social pathways; biological mechanisms remain preliminary. Stepped, layered, and culturally adapted delivery embedded in schools, families, and primary care is needed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frcha.2026.1912159","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T08:19:47Z","timestamp":1788337187000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Psychological impact of armed conflict and forced displacement on children and adolescents"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Maryam","family":"Masoomi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Tehran University of Medical Sciences","place":["Tehran, Iran"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahdieh","family":"Saeidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, BronxCare Health System","place":["Bronx, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mona","family":"Salehi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, BronxCare Health System","place":["Bronx, NY, United States"]},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota","place":["Minneapolis, MN, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sakshi","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, BronxCare Health System","place":["Bronx, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omar","family":"Alzein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, BronxCare Health System","place":["Bronx, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deblina","family":"Roy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, King George\u2019s Medical University","place":["Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohita","family":"Joshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Era\u2019s Medical College","place":["Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sasidhar","family":"Gunturu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, BronxCare Health System","place":["Bronx, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1002\/ab.20334","article-title":"Preventive interventions among children exposed to trauma of armed conflict: a literature review","volume":"36","author":"Peltonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aggress Behav"},{"key":"B2","author":"Gillis","year":"2009"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.15574\/SP.2023.132.51","article-title":"Peculiarities of the psychological state of internally displaced school-age children and adolescents in war conditions","volume":"4","author":"Danylenko","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mod Pediatr Ukraine"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S49","DOI":"10.1192\/j.eurpsy.2023.178","article-title":"Psychopathological consequences of war and armed conflicts","volume":"66","author":"Carpiniello","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur Psychiatry"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20182586","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2018-2586","article-title":"The effects of armed conflict on children","volume":"142","author":"Kadir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"B6","year":""},{"key":"B7","year":""},{"key":"B8","author":"Aamir","year":"2026"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1017\/S1816383118000620","article-title":"Interview with Peter Maurer: president of the ICRC","volume":"99","author":"Bernard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int Rev Red Cross"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1186\/s13031-018-0153-1","article-title":"Mechanisms of change for interventions aimed at improving the wellbeing, mental health and resilience of children and adolescents affected by war and armed conflict: a systematic review of reviews","volume":"12","author":"Bosqui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Confl Health"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1388709","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2017.1388709","article-title":"The effectiveness of psychosocial interventions in war-traumatized refugee and internally displaced minors: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Nocon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2014.12.006","article-title":"A moment of change: facilitating refugee children\u2019s mental health in UK schools","volume":"41","author":"Fazel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Educ Dev"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1097\/WTF.0b013e328321e142","article-title":"Developing inter-agency guidelines on mental health and psychosocial support in emergency settings","volume":"6","author":"Wessells","year":"2008","journal-title":"Intervention"},{"key":"B14","volume-title":"Six Grave Violations Against Children in Times of war","year":"2023"},{"key":"B15","first-page":"891","article-title":"Impact of war on children and imperative to end war","volume":"47","author":"Santa Barbara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Croat Med J"},{"key":"B16","year":""},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1017\/S181638312000017X","article-title":"Living through war: mental health of children and youth in conflict-affected areas","volume":"101","author":"Frounfelker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Rev Red Cross"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-022-01974-z","article-title":"Impact of war and forced displacement on children\u2019s mental health\u2014multilevel, needs-oriented, and trauma-informed approaches","volume":"31","author":"B\u00fcrgin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0210071","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210071","article-title":"Effects of armed conflict on child health and development: a systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Kadir","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B20","year":""},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1578637","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2019.1578637","article-title":"The prevalence of PTSD and major depression in the global population of adult war survivors: a meta-analytically informed estimate in absolute numbers","volume":"10","author":"Hoppen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e006303","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-006303","article-title":"Global burden of post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression in countries affected by war between 1989 and 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Hoppen","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20568","article-title":"Intergenerational transmission of trauma effects: putative role of epigenetic mechanisms","volume":"17","author":"Yehuda","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1007\/s12291-023-01136-1","article-title":"Role of epigenetic modification in the intergenerational transmission of war trauma","volume":"39","author":"Bolouki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J Clin Biochem"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.5539\/ijps.v2n2p14","article-title":"The nature and psychosocial consequences of war rape for individuals and communities","volume":"2","author":"Hagen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Psychol Stud"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp2209422","article-title":"The war-zone mentality\u2014mental health effects of gun violence in US children and adolescents","volume":"387","author":"Garbarino","year":"2022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e287","DOI":"10.1093\/pubmed\/fdz095","article-title":"Armed conflict and public health: into the 21st century","volume":"42","author":"Garry","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Public Health (Oxf)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2015.06.011","article-title":"The Danieli inventory of multigenerational legacies of trauma, part I: survivors\u2019 posttrauma adaptational styles in their children\u2019s eyes","volume":"68","author":"Danieli","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1037\/ort0000145","article-title":"Multigenerational legacies of trauma: modeling the what and how of transmission","volume":"86","author":"Danieli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31577-X","article-title":"Children of war: urgent action is needed to save a generation","volume":"388","author":"Bhutta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-016-0626-7","article-title":"Effects of war, terrorism and armed conflict on young children: a systematic review","volume":"47","author":"Slone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum Dev"},{"key":"B32","first-page":"135","article-title":"Trauma, transgenerational transfer and effects on community wellbeing","volume-title":"Working Together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and Practice","author":"Atkinson","year":"2010"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1521\/psyc.2007.70.4.283","article-title":"Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: empirical evidence","volume":"70","author":"Hobfoll","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychiatry"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-750X(03)00010-X","article-title":"Enduring poverty and the conditions of childhood: lifecourse and intergenerational poverty transmissions","volume":"31","author":"Harper","year":"2003","journal-title":"World Dev"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.01.006","article-title":"Trauma appraisals, emotion regulation difficulties, and self-compassion predict posttraumatic stress symptoms following childhood abuse","volume":"65","author":"Barlow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1111\/josh.12541","article-title":"Chronic childhood trauma, mental health, academic achievement, and school-based health center mental health services","volume":"87","author":"Larson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Sch Health"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2015.197","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and trauma informed care: the future of health care","volume":"79","author":"Oral","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1007\/s12310-018-09308-8","article-title":"Shifting teacher practice in trauma-affected classrooms: practice pedagogy strategies within a trauma-informed positive education model","volume":"11","author":"Brunzell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sch Ment Health"},{"key":"B39","first-page":"6","article-title":"Professional learning in trauma informed positive education: moving school communities from trauma affected to trauma aware","volume":"14","author":"Stokes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sch Leadersh Rev"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-008-0049-7","article-title":"Social support and resilience to stress across the life span: a neurobiologic framework","volume":"10","author":"Ozbay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16020195","article-title":"Underlying dimensions of social cohesion in a rural community affected by wartime violence in Colombia","volume":"16","author":"Ramos-Vidal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-011-0095-2","article-title":"Creating nurturing environments: a science-based framework for promoting child health and development within high-poverty neighborhoods","volume":"14","author":"Komro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-1648","article-title":"The human capacity to thrive in the face of potential trauma","volume":"121","author":"Bonanno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1177\/1054137315606830","article-title":"The aftermath of humanitarian crises: a model for addressing social work interventions with individuals, groups, and communities","volume":"25","author":"Dombo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Illness Crisis Loss"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/10463283.2020.1857082","article-title":"Motivating voluntary compliance to behavioural restrictions: self-determination theory\u2013based checklist of principles for COVID-19 and other emergency communications","volume":"32","author":"Martela","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Rev Soc Psychol"},{"key":"B46","first-page":"875","article-title":"Challenges of confidentiality in clinical settings: compilation of an ethical guideline","volume":"47","author":"Noroozi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Iran J Public Health"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/14330237.2006.10820130","article-title":"Addressing urgent community mental health needs in Rwanda: culturally sensitive training interventions","volume":"16","author":"Levers","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Psychol Afr"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1017\/S0963180108080213","article-title":"Cultural competency at the community level: a strategy for reducing racial and ethnic disparities","volume":"17","author":"Ornelas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Camb Q Healthc Ethics"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01824.x","article-title":"Promoting child and adolescent mental health in low and middle income countries","volume":"49","author":"Patel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S67","DOI":"10.12669\/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2759","article-title":"Mental health considerations for children and adolescents in COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"36","author":"Imran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pak J Med Sci"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-020-00329-3","article-title":"Challenges and burden of the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic for child and adolescent mental health: a narrative review to highlight clinical and research needs in the acute phase and the long return to normality","volume":"14","author":"Fegert","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/15548732.2019.1595259","article-title":"Identifying and addressing parental trauma and behavioral health need: the role of the child welfare system","volume":"13","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Public Child Welf"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.21201\/2017.8937","volume-title":"The Impact of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Interventions on People Affected by Humanitarian Emergencies: A Systematic Review","author":"Mukdarut","year":"2017"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97046-2_8","article-title":"Interventions for mental health and psychosocial support in complex humanitarian emergencies: moving towards consensus in policy and action?","volume-title":"Mental Health of Refugee and Conflict-affected populations: Theory, Research and Clinical Practice","author":"Ventevogel","year":"2018"},{"key":"B55","volume-title":"Children: Legal Protection (factsheet)","year":"2003"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2016.05.006","article-title":"Interventions for children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis of comparative outcome studies","volume":"47","author":"Morina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"B57","volume-title":"IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings","year":"2007"},{"key":"B58","volume-title":"mhGAP Humanitarian Intervention Guide (mhGAP-HIG): Clinical Management of Mental, Neurological and Substance use Conditions in Humanitarian Emergencies","year":"2015"},{"key":"B59","volume-title":"The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response","year":"2018"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674028845","volume-title":"The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design","author":"Bronfenbrenner","year":"1979"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05445-5","article-title":"A critical view on transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in humans","volume":"9","author":"Horsthemke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025706427300","article-title":"Are children of holocaust survivors less well-adapted? A meta-analytic investigation of secondary traumatization","volume":"16","author":"Van Ijzendoorn","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Trauma Stress"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e390","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30046-9","article-title":"Focused psychosocial interventions for children in low-resource humanitarian settings: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Purgato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12671","article-title":"Annual research review: breaking cycles of violence, a systematic review and common practice elements analysis of psychosocial interventions for children and youth affected by armed conflict","volume":"58","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1177\/1363461514568442","article-title":"Disclosure and silencing: a systematic review of the literature on patterns of trauma communication in refugee families","volume":"52","author":"Dalgaard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transcult Psychiatry"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.111","article-title":"The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity","volume":"17","author":"Teicher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1912159\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T08:19:50Z","timestamp":1788337190000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1912159\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"references-count":66,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frcha.2026.1912159"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1912159","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-4540"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-4540","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]]},"article-number":"1912159"}}