{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T06:04:25Z","timestamp":1789365865920,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Executive Functions (EF) and Social Cognition (SC) show strong interdependence, yet it remains unclear whether social difficulties in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder Level 1 (ASD1) and Attention Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), arise from shared EF related mechanisms or reflect disorder specific neurocognitive architectures. Comparative studies integrating both ecological and performance based measures remain scarce. This study aims to analyze the relationship between executive functions and Social Cognition skills across three matched developmental groups: Autism Spectrum Disorder Level 1 (ASD1), Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Typical Development (TD).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 123 children aged 6\u201311 years participated in the study: ASD1 (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200942), ADHD (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200943), and TD (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200938). Participants were evaluated using the WISC-IV, BRIEF-2, and selected subtests of the NEPSY-II. Non-parametric group comparisons and multiple linear regression models within the clinical groups were performed.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Both clinical groups showed widespread EF and SC impairments compared to TD peers, but with distinct profiles. ADHD exhibited pronounced deficits in inhibition and attentional control (Inhibition, Auditory\/Visual Attention), whereas ASD1 showed greater impairment in SC (ToM, AR), cognitive flexibility (Shift), and rule-guided tasks (Response Set, DesignFluency). Regression models revealed disorder-specific EF\u2013SC relationships: in ADHD, SC performance was strongly scaffolded by EF (Inhibition, Auditory Attention, Design Fluency; ToM model R\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.72). In ASD1, ToM was predicted primarily by AR and Response Set (R\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.55), indicating relative independence from basic inhibitory and attentional resources.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite superficially similar social difficulties, ASD1 and ADHD display distinct patterns of association between EF and SC: executive-regulatory deficits in ADHD versus primary mentalizing and shifting impairments in ASD1. These findings support the need for transdiagnostic profiling to optimize early screening and to guide targeted, domain-specific rehabilitative and psychoeducational interventions for each diagnostic profile.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frcha.2026.1920753","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T05:39:39Z","timestamp":1789364379000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Neurocognitive endophenotypes in neurodevelopmental disorders: social cognition and executive functions in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Level 1 and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Grazia Maria Giovanna","family":"Pastorino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro","place":["Catanzaro, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Olivieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departement of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Aquino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro","place":["Catanzaro, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noemi","family":"Mungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro","place":["Catanzaro, Italy"]},{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rossella","family":"Suriano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro","place":["Catanzaro, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca Felicia","family":"Operto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro","place":["Catanzaro, Italy"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291715002573","article-title":"Meta-analysis of social cognition in Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): comparison with healthy controls and autistic spectrum disorder","volume":"46","author":"Bora","year":"2016","journal-title":"PsycholMed"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658823","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.658823","article-title":"Social cognition in neurodevelopmental disorders and epilepsy","volume":"12","author":"Pastorino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3389\/frcha.2023.1149244","article-title":"Social and executive functioning in individuals with autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability: the case\u2013control study protocol of the CNeSA study","volume":"2","author":"Donno","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-018-1174-4","article-title":"Emotional face recognition in male adolescents with autism spectrum disorder or disruptive behavior disorder: an eye-tracking study","volume":"27","author":"Bours","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s11689-018-9249-6","article-title":"An emotion recognition subtyping approach to studying the heterogeneity and comorbidity of autism spectrum disorders and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"10","author":"Waddington","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neurodev Disord"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0298468","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298468","article-title":"An assessment of dynamic facial emotion recognition and theory of mind in children with ADHD: an eye-tracking study","volume":"19","author":"Bozkurt","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2016.0052","article-title":"Empathy and facial expression recognition in children with and without Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: effects of stimulant medication on empathic skills in children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"27","author":"Gumustas","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Child AdolescPsychopharmacol"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567401","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.567401","article-title":"Theory of mind profiles in children with autism Spectrum disorder: adaptive\/social skills and pragmatic competence","volume":"11","author":"Rosello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0759-1-22","article-title":"The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions","volume":"1","author":"Decety","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biopsychosoc Med"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.121.1.65","article-title":"Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD","volume":"121","author":"Barkley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721411429458","article-title":"The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions","volume":"21","author":"Miyake","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(94)90092-2","article-title":"Evidence for executive dysfunction in autism","volume":"32","author":"Hughes","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023052913110","article-title":"Brief report: specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"29","author":"Ozonoff","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S104620","article-title":"A review of executive function deficits in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Margari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatric Dis Treat"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01857.x","article-title":"Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample","volume":"49","author":"Ronald","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2025.09.066","article-title":"Emotional dysregulation, executive functions and callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents with oppositional defiant disorder\/conduct disorder and autism Spectrum disorder: a direct comparison","volume":"191","author":"Narducci","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1449","article-title":"Overlap between autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: searching for distinctive\/common clinical features","volume":"8","author":"Craig","year":"2015","journal-title":"Autism Res"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3839","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9123839","article-title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder and disruptive behavior disorders comorbidities delineate clinical phenotypes in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: novel insights from the assessment of psychopathological and neuropsychological profiles","volume":"9","author":"Sesso","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-005-3291-4","article-title":"Subtle executive impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD","volume":"35","author":"Goldberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1179\/2047387714Y.0000000040","article-title":"Executive function and attention profiles in preschool and elementary school children with autism spectrum disorders or ADHD","volume":"60","author":"Sinzig","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Dev Disabil"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2011.08.008","article-title":"Executive function in children with pervasive developmental disorder and attention-deficit\/ hyperactivity disorder assessed by the keio version of the Wisconsin card sorting test","volume":"34","author":"Kado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Dev"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2014.04.006","article-title":"Impaired sustained attention, focused attention, and vigilance in youths with autistic disorder and asperger's Disorder","volume":"8","author":"Chien","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res Autism SpectrDisord"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291714003201","article-title":"Visual memory and sustained attention impairment in youths with autism spectrum disorders","volume":"45","author":"Chien","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.108.5.848","article-title":"Impairment in shifting attention in autistic and cerebellar patients","volume":"108","author":"Courchesne","year":"1994","journal-title":"BehavNeurosci"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026091809650","article-title":"Attentional capacities in children with autism: is there a general deficit in shifting focus?","volume":"28","author":"Pascualvaca","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Autism Dev Disord"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4899-1286-2_11","article-title":"Executive functions in autism","volume-title":"Learning and Cognition in Autism","author":"Ozonoff","year":"1995"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3390\/children11040473","article-title":"Comparing executive functions in children and adolescents with autism and ADHD-A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Ceruti","year":"2024","journal-title":"Children (Basel)"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.02.005","article-title":"Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development","volume":"166","author":"Corbett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00276.x","article-title":"How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism?","volume":"45","author":"Geurts","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1076\/chin.8.2.121.8727","article-title":"Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders","volume":"8","author":"Gioia","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054714550336","article-title":"Distinct patterns of everyday executive function problems distinguish children with Tourette syndrome from children with ADHD or Autism Spectrum Disorders","volume":"21","author":"Hovik","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000145","article-title":"Everyday executive function impairments predict comorbid psychopathology in autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders","volume":"29","author":"Lawson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00351.x","article-title":"Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: relationship to theory of mind","volume":"32","author":"Ozonoff","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.43.4.974","article-title":"Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: clues to developmental primacy","volume":"43","author":"Pellicano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01810.x","article-title":"Social maturity and theory of mind in typically developing children and those on the autism spectrum","volume":"48","author":"Peterson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01035","article-title":"Social cognition in children with high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"8","author":"Miranda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Associations with Executive Functions. Front Psychol"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12237","article-title":"Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: a meta-analysis","volume":"85","author":"Devine","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1037\/a0018287","article-title":"Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism","volume":"46","author":"Pellicano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"B39","first-page":"256","volume-title":"Autism as an Executive Disorder","author":"Russell","year":"1997"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-008-0119-4","article-title":"The relationship between theory of mind and executive function in a sample of children from mainland China","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry Hum Dev"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00655","article-title":"The reciprocal relationship between executive function and theory of mind in middle childhood: a 1-year longitudinal perspective","volume":"5","author":"Austin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000105","article-title":"Theory of mind in middle childhood: longitudinal associations with executive function and social competence","volume":"52","author":"Devine","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2018.1440296","article-title":"Executive function in middle childhood and the relationship with theory of mind","volume":"43","author":"Wilson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev Neuropsychol"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2010.09091379","article-title":"Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders","volume":"167","author":"Insel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2008.10.018","article-title":"ERP Correlates of selective attention and working memory capacities in children with ADHD and\/or PDD-NOS","volume":"120","author":"Gomarus","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2010.06.009","article-title":"Etiology and neuropsychology of comorbidity between RD and ADHD: the case for multiple-deficit models","volume":"46","author":"Willcutt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2006.03.004","article-title":"Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages","volume":"61","author":"Happ\u00e9","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2003.11.003","article-title":"Executive dysfunction in autism","volume":"8","author":"Hill","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1753-2000-2-4","article-title":"Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms","volume":"2","author":"Sinzig","year":"2008","journal-title":"Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579408000527","article-title":"Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism","volume":"20","author":"O'Hearn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev Psychopathol"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713001049","article-title":"Attention and inhibition in children with ASD, ADHD and co-morbid ASD+ADHD: an event-related potential study","volume":"44","author":"Tye","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e46569","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0046569","article-title":"Response inhibition impairment in high functioning autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: evidence from near-infrared spectroscopy data","volume":"7","author":"Xiao","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2013.01.005","article-title":"Neurobehavioral and hemodynamic evaluation of stroop and reverse stroop interference in children with Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder","volume":"36","author":"Yasumura","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Dev"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2012.08.002","article-title":"Atypical development of spontaneous social cognition in autism spectrum disorders","volume":"35","author":"Senju","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Dev"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(94)90024-8","article-title":"Autism: beyond \u201ctheory of mind\u201d","volume":"50","author":"Frith","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2014.06.011","article-title":"Distinguishing between autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by using behavioral checklists, cognitive assessments, and neuropsychological test battery","volume":"12","author":"Matsuura","year":"2014","journal-title":"Asian J Psychiatr"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1920753\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T05:39:40Z","timestamp":1789364380000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1920753\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"references-count":56,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frcha.2026.1920753"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frcha.2026.1920753","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-4540"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-4540","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"article-number":"1920753"}}