{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T19:22:39Z","timestamp":1792696959056,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]],"date-time":"2024-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Rehabil. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents GARD, an upper limb end-effector rehabilitation device developed for stroke patients. GARD offers assistance force along or towards a 2D trajectory during physical therapy sessions. GARD employs a non-backdrivable mechanism with novel motor velocity-control-based algorithms, which offers superior control precision and stability. To our knowledge, this innovative technical route has not been previously explored in rehabilitation robotics. In alignment with the new design, GARD features two novel control algorithms: Implicit Euler Velocity Control (IEVC) algorithm and a generalized impedance control algorithm. These algorithms achieve <jats:inline-formula><mml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1998\/Math\/MathML\" id=\"IM1\"><mml:mi>O<\/mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy=\"false\">(<\/mml:mo><mml:mi>n<\/mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy=\"false\">)<\/mml:mo><\/mml:math><\/jats:inline-formula> runtime complexity for any arbitrary trajectory. The system has demonstrated a mean absolute error of 0.023\u2009mm in trajectory-following tasks and 0.14\u2009mm in trajectory-restricted free moving tasks. The proposed upper limb rehabilitation device offers all the functionalities of existing commercial devices with superior performance. Additionally, GARD provides unique functionalities such as area-restricted free moving and dynamic Motion Restriction Map interaction. This device holds strong potential for widespread clinical use, potentially improving rehabilitation outcomes for stroke patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fresc.2024.1469491","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]],"date-time":"2024-11-29T07:13:12Z","timestamp":1732864392000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Design and control of a low-cost non-backdrivable end-effector upper limb rehabilitation device"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Fulan","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunfei","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenda","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weide","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fangyun","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Baiyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huaguang","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengkun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","article-title":"Heart disease and stroke statistics-2021 update: a report from the American heart association (2021)","author":"Virani","year":""},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.0000087172.16305.CD","article-title":"Probability of regaining dexterity in the flaccid upper limb: impact of severity of paresis and time since onset in acute stroke","volume":"34","author":"Kwakkel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.5853\/jos.2013.15.3.174","article-title":"Robot-assisted therapy in stroke rehabilitation","volume":"15","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Stroke"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20556683231183639","DOI":"10.1177\/20556683231183639","article-title":"Effectiveness of robot-assisted arm exercise on arm and hand function in stroke survivors-a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Johansen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Rehabil Assist Technol Eng"},{"key":"B5","article-title":"Data from: Inmotion arm for neurological rehabilitation (2024)","year":""},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-1-5","article-title":"Rehabilitation robotics: pilot trial of a spatial extension for mit-manus","volume":"1","author":"Krebs","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Neuroeng Rehabil"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rehab.2018.05.203","article-title":"Clinical and kinematic evaluation of the h-man arm robot for post-stroke upper limb rehabilitation: preliminary findings of a randomised controlled trial","volume":"61","author":"Chua","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Phys Rehabil Med"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2020.105359","article-title":"Influence on the user\u2019s emotional state of the graphic complexity level in virtual therapies based on a robot-assisted neuro-rehabilitation platform","volume":"190","author":"Villar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput Methods Programs Biomed"},{"key":"B9","article-title":"Data from: Armmotus m2 upper limb rehabilitation robotics (2024)","year":""},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23329","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-021-06037-z","article-title":"Iterative learning-based path control for robot-assisted upper-limb rehabilitation","volume":"35","author":"Maqsood","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Comput Appl"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1687814017752302","DOI":"10.1177\/1687814017752302","article-title":"Development of a robotic device for post-stroke home tele-rehabilitation","volume":"10","author":"D\u00edaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv Mech Eng"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00041","article-title":"Effectiveness of robot-assisted upper limb training on spasticity, function and muscle activity in chronic stroke patients treated with botulinum toxin: a randomized single-blinded controlled trial","volume":"10","author":"Gandolfi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.2478\/s13230-012-0009-0","article-title":"Development of a robotic device for upper limb stroke rehabilitation: a user-centered design approach, Paladyn","volume":"2","author":"Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Behav Rob"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7640325","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7640325","article-title":"Design and interaction control of a new bilateral upper-limb rehabilitation device","volume":"2017","author":"Miao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Healthc Eng"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e9219","DOI":"10.2196\/rehab.9219","article-title":"Adoption of stroke rehabilitation technologies by the user community: qualitative study","volume":"5","author":"Kerr","year":"2018","journal-title":"JMIR Rehabil Assist Technol"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1080\/17483107.2022.2107095","article-title":"The rehabilitation robot: factors influencing its use, advantages and limitations in clinical rehabilitation","volume":"19","author":"Ouendi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol"},{"key":"B17","first-page":"6167","article-title":"Preliminary feasibility study of the h-man planar robot for quantitative motor assessment","volume-title":"2015 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)","author":"Hussain","year":""},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00074","article-title":"Principles of neurorehabilitation after stroke based on motor learning and brain plasticity mechanisms","volume":"13","author":"Maier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Syst Neurosci"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.46.6.521","article-title":"The hemiplegic arm after stroke: measurement and recovery","volume":"46","author":"Wade","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5220\/0008324803290337","article-title":"Active, passive, and active-assistive range of motion (rom) exercise to improve muscle strength in post stroke clients: a systematic review","volume-title":"9th International Nursing Conference, Surabaya, Indonesia","author":"Indrawati","year":"2018"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215520932964","article-title":"Resistance training in stroke rehabilitation: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Veldema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Rehabil"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1177\/0269215519829795","article-title":"The effectiveness of somatosensory retraining for improving sensory function in the arm following stroke: a systematic review","volume":"33","author":"Turville","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Rehabil"},{"key":"B23","volume-title":"Introduction to Numerical Analysis","author":"Hildebrand","year":"1987"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fresc.2024.1469491\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]],"date-time":"2024-11-29T07:13:15Z","timestamp":1732864395000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fresc.2024.1469491\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]},"references-count":23,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fresc.2024.1469491"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fresc.2024.1469491","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-6861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-6861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,29]]},"article-number":"1469491"}}