{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T05:27:49Z","timestamp":1786512469871,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786492800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Tendon-driven exoskeletons are often limited by mechanical bulk, complex cable routing, and large externally mounted actuators. Similarly, conventional linear actuators used in wearable exoskeleton systems are often limited by low stroke-to-body-length ratios that restrict the range of motion. This study presents the mechanical design of a novel Rail-guided Inline DirEct dRive (RIDER) with a high stroke-to-length ratio for wearable exoskeletons.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The proposed system creates a linearized RIDER system using a \u201cmotor-driven cart\u201d layout that travels along a toothed twin-rail structure. The prototype system was developed using 3D-printed materials and open-source electronics, and the resultant force\u2013velocity performance was experimentally evaluated under vertical loading. Vertical displacement was measured using an ultrasonic sensor (HC SR-04), and the corresponding velocity was computed via a finite-difference approximation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The actuator demonstrated a maximum free-load velocity of 7.27 cm\/s and a maximum force output of 103.7 N prior to slipping. When integrated into a tendon-driven system, the duo configuration produced a 6.22 Nm torque output with a range of motion of 120\u00b0 or a 10.37 Nm torque output with a range of motion of 72\u00b0. The actuator also demonstrates a 190% (i.e., 0.58 vs 0.2) higher stroke-to-length ratio than a representative telescopic actuator of similar geometry.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this study, we show that the RIDER system demonstrates a wearable, rail-based actuation strategy capable of adjustable torque amplification and improved spatial-efficiency integration for human\u2013robot interaction in wearable robotics. The current study focuses on the benchtop mechanical validation of the RIDER system as a proof-of-concept for future integration into wearable exoskeletons. This research is part of a larger study to develop adaptive exoskeletons that enable scalable performance improvements for assistive robotics in the workplace and neurorehabilitation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2026.1843206","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T04:39:00Z","timestamp":1786509540000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A compact external-rail linear actuation mechanism with a high stroke-to-length ratio for wearable exoskeleton applications"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Tianmai","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo","place":["Buffalo, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filip","family":"Stefanovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo","place":["Buffalo, NY, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR55369.2022.9896594","article-title":"Upper limb exosuit cable routing optimization","volume":"2022","author":"Bardi","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Int. 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