{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T06:08:35Z","timestamp":1780553315454,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Reprod. Health"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Blood transfusion is a cornerstone of modern healthcare, particularly in maternal and pediatric care. However, it continues to carry a residual risk of transmitting transfusion-transmissible infections (TTIs), especially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Quantifying this residual risk is critical for optimizing transfusion safety, particularly in resource-limited settings. This study aimed to estimate the residual risk of HIV, HBV, and HCV transmission among blood donors in the Borgou department of Benin.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A retrospective cohort study of repeat donors was conducted from January 2023 to December 2025 among repeat blood donors in Borgou. Serological screening was performed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with Bio-Rad\u00ae kits. Residual risk was estimated using the Schreiber model based on incidence\/window period methodology. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, and associations were assessed using the Chi-square test, with statistical significance set at\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.05.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 11,113 repeat donors were included, with a marked male predominance (male-to-female ratio: 14.14). The majority were aged 18\u201330 years (72%) and were students (54%). Overall, 145 incident infections were identified. Incidence rates per 100,000 donor-years were 5.98 for HIV, 350.28 for HBV, and 77.84 for HCV. No significant association was observed between HIV incidence and sociodemographic characteristics. In contrast, HBV and HCV incidences were significantly associated with age (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.001 and\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.03, respectively), with higher rates observed among donors aged 18\u201324 years. Estimated residual risks were 1 in 277,000 donations for HIV, 1 in 1,862 for HBV, and 1 in 7,070 for HCV.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although the residual risk of TTIs in Borgou is lower than that reported in several sub-Saharan African settings, it remains substantially higher than in high-income countries. These findings highlight the urgent need to strengthen donor selection strategies, enhance targeted health education, and implement more sensitive screening technologies, such as nucleic acid testing, to further improve blood safety.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frph.2026.1861977","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:40:11Z","timestamp":1780551611000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Residual risk of HIV, HBV, and HCV transmission through blood transfusion in Borgou, Benin, 2023\u20132025"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Kamel-Dine","family":"Djaliri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]},{"name":"Research Unit in Applied Microbiology and Pharmacology of Natural Substances, Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Polytechnic School of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]},{"name":"National Blood Transfusion Agency (ANTS)","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adolphe","family":"Adjanohoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pamphile","family":"Aguessy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victorien","family":"Dougnon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit in Applied Microbiology and Pharmacology of Natural Substances, Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Polytechnic School of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haziz","family":"Sina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lamine","family":"Baba-Moussa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Abomey-Calavi","place":["Cotonou, Benin"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","volume-title":"Blood Safety and Availability","year":"2023"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Global status Report on Blood Safety and Availability 2022","year":"2022"},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"Screening Donated Blood for Transfusion-transmissible infections","year":"2010"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2009.01.002","article-title":"Transfusion-transmitted infectious diseases","volume":"37","author":"Allain","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3148.2009.00950.x","article-title":"The blood donor in sub-Saharan Africa: a review","volume":"20","author":"Tagny","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfus Med"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1685","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199606273342601","article-title":"The risk of transfusion-transmitted viral infections","volume":"334","author":"Schreiber","year":"1996","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1537-2995.2002.00200.x","article-title":"International application of the incidence rate\/window period model","volume":"42","author":"Glynn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"Blood Donor Selection: Guidelines on Assessing Donor Suitability for Blood Donation","year":"2012"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"Manual of Laboratory Techniques for Immunological Assays and Blood Safety","year":"2017"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1586\/14737159.6.3.399","article-title":"Screening of HIV infection: role of molecular and immunological assays","volume":"6","author":"Weber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Expert Rev Mol Diagn"},{"key":"B11","year":"2021"},{"key":"B12","year":"2020"},{"key":"B13","year":"2021"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2004.04215.x","article-title":"A new strategy for estimating risks of transfusion-transmitted viral infections","volume":"45","author":"Busch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmrv.2011.07.007","article-title":"Donor testing and risk: current prevalence, incidence, and residual risk of transfusion-transmissible agents in US allogeneic donations","volume":"26","author":"Zou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transfus Med Rev"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.5281\/hsd.v20i6.1630","article-title":"Seroprevalence of HIV, hepatitis B and C viruses, and syphilis among blood donors at Sikasso Hospital, Mali","volume":"20","author":"Goita","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Sci Dis"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2016.23.175.8361","article-title":"Profil \u00e9pid\u00e9miologique et s\u00e9ropr\u00e9valence des donneurs de sang aux Cliniques Universitaires de Lubumbashi, R\u00e9publique D\u00e9mocratique du Congo","volume":"23","author":"Ngama Kakisingi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.3390\/v17081107","article-title":"Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) among blood donors in Borgou, Benin in 2023: a cross-sectional study","volume":"17","author":"Djaliri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2147\/JBM.S189079","article-title":"Residual risk of HIV, HCV, and HBV transmission through blood transfusion between 2015 and 2017 at the Ouagadougou Regional Blood Transfusion Center, Burkina Faso","volume":"10","author":"Yooda","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Blood Med"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respe.2012.11.002","article-title":"Pr\u00e9valence et incidence du VIH et de l'h\u00e9patite B chez les donneurs de sang et estimation du risque r\u00e9siduel de transmission du virus VIH et du virus VHB par la transfusion sanguine; une \u00e9tude \u00e0 l'h\u00f4pital Provincial G\u00e9n\u00e9ral de R\u00e9f\u00e9rence de bukavu, R\u00e9publique D\u00e9mocratique du Congo","volume":"61","author":"Namululi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique"},{"key":"B21","first-page":"438","article-title":"Surveillance \u00e9pid\u00e9miologique des donneurs de sang et risque r\u00e9siduel de transmission du VIH, de l\u2019HTLV, du VHC et du VHB par transfusion en France entre 2008 et 2010","volume":"39","author":"Pillonel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull Epidemiol Hebd"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tracli.2014.03.003","article-title":"Les h\u00e9patites B et C chez les donneurs b\u00e9n\u00e9voles de sang et non r\u00e9mun\u00e9r\u00e9s de l\u2019Est de la r\u00e9publique D\u00e9mocratique du Congo","volume":"21","author":"Kabinda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transfus Clin Biol"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tracli.2009.09.005","article-title":"Residual risk of transmission of HIV and HBV, in Senegalese national blood bank from 2003 to 2005","volume":"16","author":"Tour\u00e9-Fall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transfus Clin Biol"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tracli.2006.09.001","article-title":"Residual risk of HIV, HVB and HCV transmission by blood transfusion between 2002 and 2004 at the Abidjan National Blood Transfusion Center","volume":"13","author":"Ouattara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Transfus Clin Biol"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2010.02622.x","article-title":"Prevalence, incidence, and residual risk of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus infections among United States blood donors since the introduction of nucleic acid testing","volume":"50","author":"Zou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.2450\/2013.0144-13","article-title":"The risk of transfusion-transmitted viral infections at the Gabonese National Blood Transfusion Centre","volume":"12","author":"Rerambiah","year":"2014","journal-title":"Blood Transfus"},{"key":"B27","first-page":"25","article-title":"Incidence et risque r\u00e9siduel de transmission des virus de l\u2019h\u00e9patite B et C par transfusion sanguine \u00e0 Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso): \u00e9tude de cohorte","volume":"40","author":"Koura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Tec Sci Sant\u00e9"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2011.02902.x","article-title":"Seroprevalence and incidence of transfusion-transmitted infectious diseases among blood donors from regional blood transfusion centres in Burkina Faso, West Africa","volume":"17","author":"Nagalo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"B29","first-page":"59","article-title":"Residual risk of HIV, HCV, and HBV transmission by blood transfusion between 2015 and 2017 in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"10","author":"Kabinda","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Blood Med"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Reproductive Health"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frph.2026.1861977\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T05:40:13Z","timestamp":1780551613000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frph.2026.1861977\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"references-count":29,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frph.2026.1861977"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frph.2026.1861977","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-3153"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-3153","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]]},"article-number":"1861977"}}