{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T07:56:19Z","timestamp":1793692579715,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Sleep"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pathophysiology of sleep apnea goes beyond anatomic predisposition to airway collapse and includes additional factors such as arousal threshold and loop gain. High loop gain is a prominent feature in central and complex sleep apnea (with a mixture of obstructive and central features) where relative hypocapnia can lead to respiratory instability and periodic breathing. Existing therapies, including continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and adaptive servo-ventilators, often inadequately treat sleep apnea with high loop gain features. Enhanced expiratory rebreathing space (EERS) targets prevention of the hypocapnia that triggers central events in sleep by increasing dead space in amounts less than typical tidal volumes. This is accomplished by covering traditional exhalation ports on positive airway pressure masks and adding small additional tubing with distal exhalation and safety valves. This technique reduces carbon dioxide (CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>) blow-off during arousals and the associated large recovery breaths, typically producing a maximal increase in resting CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> by 1\u20132 mmHg, thus increasing the CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> reserve and making it less likely to encounter the hypocapnic apneic threshold. Typically, the amount of EERS is titrated in response to central events and periodic breathing rather than aiming for a goal CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> level. Ideally CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> monitoring is used during titration of EERS and the technique is avoided in the setting of baseline hypercapnia. This method has been used in clinical practice at our sleep center for over 15 years, and retrospective data suggests an excellent safety profile and high rates of successful therapy including in patients who have previously failed CPAP therapy. Limitations include decreased effectiveness in the setting of leak and decreased tolerance of the bulkier circuit. EERS represents a simple, affordable modification of existing positive airway pressure modalities for treatment of central and complex sleep apnea. Areas of future study include randomized controlled trials of the technique and study of use of EERS in combination with adaptive ventilation, and pharmacologic adjuncts targeting high loop gain physiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frsle.2023.1248371","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]],"date-time":"2023-09-29T16:22:13Z","timestamp":1696004533000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Enhanced expiratory rebreathing space for high loop gain sleep apnea treatment"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Thomas","family":"Quinn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert Joseph","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric James","family":"Heckman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s11325-022-02593-3","article-title":"Effect of zolpidem on nocturnal arousals and susceptibility to central sleep apnea","volume":"27","author":"Ahmad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sleep Breath"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1806","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1995.78.5.1806","article-title":"Pharyngeal narrowing\/occlusion during central sleep apnea","volume":"78","author":"Badr","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1983.sp014906","article-title":"Mechanisms of hypoxia-induced periodic breathing during sleep in humans","volume":"343","author":"Berssenbrugge","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa051001","article-title":"Continuous positive airway pressure for central sleep apnea and heart failure","volume":"353","author":"Bradley","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. 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