{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T01:23:01Z","timestamp":1774315381576,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Sleep"],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Sleep is essential for physical health and psychological wellbeing, and insomnia is strongly associated with mental health difficulties, including depression, anxiety, and fatigue. Among first responders, the prevalence of insomnia is particularly high due to chronic exposure to stress, trauma, and irregular work hours.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Aim<\/jats:title><jats:p>As part of a broader study focusing on the mental health of first responders in South Africa, the current study examined the psychometric properties of the Insomnia Severity Index from three different psychometric perspectives: classical test theory, Rasch analysis and Mokken scale analysis.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Participants were first responders (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 429) in the Western Cape province of South Africa and they included police officers (n = 309) and paramedics (n = 120). They completed the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, and the Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The three psychometric paradigms converged to confirm that the ISI measures a unidimensional scale. Furthermore, all three paradigms provided evidence for the construct validity of the ISI. In addition, classical test theory indices provided evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Lastly, the correlations between insomnia as measured by the ISI and depression, anxiety, and fatigue provided evidence for concurrent validity.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>These findings affirm that the ISI is a stable and sound tool for assessing insomnia severity within the first responder population. The absence of measurement bias across gender and professional roles also enhances the practical utility of the ISI, as it ensures equitable assessment across subgroups within the first responder workforce. The ISI emerges from this study as a valuable resource for clinicians, researchers, and occupational health professionals working with South African first responders.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frsle.2025.1635434","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T04:13:21Z","timestamp":1758600801000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Evaluating the Insomnia Severity Index among South African first responders: evidence from classical test theory, Rasch, and Mokken analyses"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Tyrone B.","family":"Pretorius","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anita","family":"Padmanabhanunni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7278","DOI":"10.1177\/23779608221107278","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the insomnia severity index among arabic chronic diseases patients","volume":"8","author":"Al Maqbali","year":"2022","journal-title":"SAGE Open Nurs."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1080\/19012276.2018.1443280","article-title":"The reliability and factorial validity of the Swedish version of the recovery experience questionnaire","volume":"70","author":"Alm\u00e9n","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nord. Psychol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","year":"2022","journal-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5-TR","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"B4","author":"Arbuckle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Amos 21.0 User's Guide, Mount"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1037\/ser0000832","article-title":"Mental health treatment for first responders: an assessment of mental health provider needs","volume":"21","author":"Arjmand","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Serv."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2022.12.005","article-title":"Insomnia, depression, and anxiety symptoms interact and individually impact functioning: a network and relative importance analysis in the context of insomnia","volume":"101","author":"Bard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S1389-9457(00)00065-4","article-title":"Validation of the insomnia severity index as an outcome measure for insomnia research","volume":"2","author":"Bastien","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17159\/sajs.2025\/16682","article-title":"Deterioration of sleep and mental health in individuals with insomnia during South Africa's COVID-19 lockdown","volume":"121","author":"Bentley","year":"2025","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"B9","unstructured":"Bevans\n              R.\n            \n          \n          Akaike Information Criterion: When and How To Use It (Example).\n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-015-0503-0","article-title":"The validity of the patient health questionnaire for screening depression in chronic care patients in primary health care in South Africa","volume":"15","author":"Bhana","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatr."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.27351","article-title":"Relationships between the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), and clinical\/polysomnographic measures in a community sample","volume":"4","author":"Buysse","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Sleep Med."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-016-2620-z","article-title":"Validation study of the Italian version of the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI)","volume":"37","author":"Castronovo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(93)90081-P","article-title":"Development of a fatigue scale","volume":"37","author":"Chalder","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2014.10.3.210","article-title":"Validation of a Korean version of the insomnia severity index","volume":"10","author":"Cho","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2017.11.191","article-title":"The European Portuguese version of the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI): reliability, validity and diagnostic accuracy","volume":"40","author":"Clemente","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/17450128.2018.1510147","article-title":"Fatigue among South African adolescents living with HIV: is the Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire a suitable measure and how common is fatigue?","volume":"13","author":"Coetzee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vul. Child. Youth Stud."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3609","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-54032-w","article-title":"Associations between fears related to safety during sleep and self-reported sleep in men and women living in a low-socioeconomic status setting","volume":"14","author":"Correia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2022.102038","article-title":"Social media, sleep difficulties and depressive symptoms: a case study of South African youth in Cape Town","volume":"70","author":"De Doncker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.23984","article-title":"Association between insomnia and the incidence of myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Dean","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Cardiol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1547-5069.2007.00161.x","article-title":"A psychometric toolbox for testing validity and reliability","volume":"39","author":"Devon","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Nurs. Schol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2021.101531","article-title":"Structural validity of the Insomnia Severity Index: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"60","author":"Dilshad Manzar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"B22","unstructured":"Dueber\n              D. M.\n            \n          \n          Bifactor Indices Calculator: A Microsoft Excel-Based Tool To Calculate Various Indices Relevant To Bifactor CFA Models\n          \n          2017"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2011.06.019","article-title":"The Spanish version of the Insomnia Severity Index: a confirmatory factor analysis","volume":"13","author":"Fernandez-Mendoza","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/1982-4327e3223","article-title":"Theoretical and practical foundations of Mokken Scale analysis in psychology","author":"Franco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Paid\u00e9ia Psicol. Educ."},{"key":"B25","unstructured":"Gaskin\n              J.\n            \n            \n              Lim\n              J.\n            \n            \n              Steed\n              J.\n            \n          \n          \u201cModel Fit Summary\u201d, AMOS Plugin\n          \n          2022"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-016-0876-8","article-title":"Validation of the German version of the insomnia severity index in adolescents, young adults and adult workers: results from three cross-sectional studies","volume":"16","author":"Gerber","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatr."},{"key":"B27","author":"Hair","year":"2010","journal-title":"Multivariate Data Analysis, Englewood Cliffs"},{"key":"B28","first-page":"46","article-title":"Statistical analysis: internal-consistency reliability and construct validity","volume":"6","author":"Hajjar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Quant. Qual. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00061-4","article-title":"A cognitive model of insomnia","volume":"40","author":"Harvey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428104263675","article-title":"Factor retention decisions in exploratory factor analysis: a tutorial on parallel analysis","volume":"7","author":"Hayton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Organ. Res. Methods"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"04092","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.12.04092","article-title":"Prevalence of sleep disorders among first responders for medical emergencies: a meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1080\/15402002.2016.1266490","article-title":"Psychometric characteristics of the Insomnia Severity Index in veterans with history of traumatic brain injury","volume":"17","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav. Sleep Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/sajid.v35i1.242","article-title":"Confirmatory factor analysis of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9: a study amongst tuberculosis patients in the Free State province","volume":"35","author":"Kigozi","year":"2020","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/sajid.v36i1.298","article-title":"Construct validity and reliability of the generalised anxiety disorder-7 scale in a sample of tuberculosis patients in the Free State Province, South Africa","volume":"36","author":"Kigozi","year":"2021","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x","article-title":"The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure","volume":"16","author":"Kroenke","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Gen. Int. Med."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1007\/s12671-022-01836-4","article-title":"PTSD symptom severity, pain intensity, and pain-related disability among trauma-exposed firefighters: the moderating role of mindfulness","volume":"13","author":"Lebeaut","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mindfulness"},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.21926\/obm.neurobiol.2304196","article-title":"Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index among university students in Korea","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"OBM Neurobiol."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24059","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-02021-8","article-title":"The impact of sleep, physical activity and sedentary behaviour on symptoms of depression and anxiety before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in a sample of South African participants","volume":"11","author":"Lewis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.2224\/sbp.6639","article-title":"Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Insomnia Severity Index in Mainland China","volume":"46","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Behav. Personal."},{"key":"B40","unstructured":"Linacre\n              J. M.\n            \n          \n          39115166\n          Portland, Oregon\n          A User's Guide to Winsteps.\n          \n          2023"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1177\/014662169001400306","article-title":"Theoretical and empirical comparison of the Mokken and the Rasch approach to IRT","volume":"14","author":"Meijer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Measur."},{"key":"B42","volume-title":"A Theory and Procedure of Scale Analysis","author":"Mokken","year":"2011"},{"key":"B43","volume-title":"Insomnia: Psychological Assessment and Management","author":"Morin","year":"1993"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12051975","article-title":"What should be the focus of treatment when insomnia disorder is comorbid with depression or anxiety disorder?","volume":"12","author":"Morin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Med."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03200807","article-title":"SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test","volume":"32","author":"O'connor","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s43045-022-00182-4","article-title":"The Moroccan dialect version of the Insomnia Severity Index","volume":"29","author":"Oneib","year":"2022","journal-title":"Middle East Curr. Psychiatr."},{"key":"B47","unstructured":"Paulsen\n              J.\n            \n            \n              Brckalorenz\n              A.\n            \n          \n          Internal Consistency Statistics.\n          \n          2017"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.4103\/ijpvm.IJPVM_212_18","article-title":"Maternal Tobacco use during Pregnancy in South Africa: results from a National Population-based Survey","volume":"10","author":"Phaswana-Mafuya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Internat. J. Prevent. Med."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3335081","article-title":"Measuring motivations of crowdworkers: The Multidimensional Crowdworker Motivation Scale","volume":"2","author":"Posch","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACM Transact. Soc. Comput."},{"key":"B50","unstructured":"Vienna, Austria\n          R Foundation for Statistical Computing\n          R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.\n          \n          2020"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23982128231194452","DOI":"10.1177\/23982128231194452","article-title":"isiXhosa translation of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) shows satisfactory psychometric properties for the measurement of depressive symptoms [Stage 2]","volume":"7","author":"Rakshasa-Loots","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Neurosci. Adv."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"zpad053","DOI":"10.1093\/sleepadvances\/zpad053","article-title":"Fear of sleep in first responders: associations with trauma types, psychopathology, and sleep disturbances","volume":"4","author":"Reffi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sleep Adv."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164412449831","article-title":"Multidimensionality and structural coefficient bias in structural equation modeling: a bifactor perspective","volume":"73","author":"Reise","year":"2013","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Measur."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-019-0411-y","article-title":"Sleep, insomnia, and depression","volume":"45","author":"Riemann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2015.1089249","article-title":"Applying bifactor statistical indices in the evaluation of psychological measures","volume":"98","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2350217","DOI":"10.1080\/20008066.2024.2350217","article-title":"A pilot randomised control study to investigate the effect of the South African Adolescence Group Sleep Intervention (SAASI) on adolescent sleep and PTSD","volume":"15","author":"Rossouw","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. psychotraumatol."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-013-0489-3","article-title":"The Insomnia Severity Index: cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric evaluation of a Persian version","volume":"23","author":"Sadeghniiat-Haghighi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2022.03.011","article-title":"Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and psychometric properties of the Hausa version of the Insomnia Severity Index among internally displaced persons in Africa","volume":"96","author":"Salihu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1449116","article-title":"Selecting the \u201cbest\u201d factor structure and moving measurement validation forward: an illustration","volume":"100","author":"Schmitt","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/bmsp.12078","article-title":"A tutorial on how to do a Mokken scale analysis on your test and questionnaire data","volume":"70","author":"Sijtsma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J.f Math. Stat. Psychol."},{"key":"B61","unstructured":"How to Interpret Excess Kurtosis And Skewness.\n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7","volume":"166","author":"Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Med."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1097\/00005650-198807000-00007","article-title":"The MOS short-form general health survey: reliability and validity in a patient population","volume":"26","author":"Stewart","year":"1988","journal-title":"Med. Care"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"873292","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.873292","article-title":"Sex differences in depression and anxiety symptoms: measurement invariance, prevalence, and symptom heterogeneity among university students in South Africa","volume":"13","author":"Tadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13923","DOI":"10.1111\/jsr.13923","article-title":"Cognitive factors and processes in models of insomnia: a systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Sleep Res."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/28.11.1457","article-title":"Epidemiology of insomnia, depression, and anxiety","volume":"28","author":"Taylor","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i05","article-title":"New developments in Mokken scale analysis in R","volume":"48","author":"Van Der Ark","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10020071","article-title":"Acute and chronic insomnia: what has time and\/or hyperarousal got to do with it?","volume":"10","author":"Vargas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Sci."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1764","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01764","article-title":"The relationship between improvement in insomnia severity and long-term outcomes in the treatment of chronic fatigue","volume":"9","author":"Vethe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2020.101383","article-title":"Fear of sleep and trauma-induced insomnia: A review and conceptual model","volume":"55","author":"Werner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/emip.12153","article-title":"An instructional module on mokken scale analysis","volume":"36","author":"Wind","year":"2017","journal-title":"Educ. Measur. Issues Pract."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.99.3.432","article-title":"Comparison of five rules for determining the number of components to retain","volume":"99","author":"Zwick","year":"1986","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Sleep"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frsle.2025.1635434\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T04:13:25Z","timestamp":1758600805000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frsle.2025.1635434\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"references-count":72,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frsle.2025.1635434"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frsle.2025.1635434","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-2890"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-2890","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"article-number":"1635434"}}