{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T14:08:55Z","timestamp":1788962935687,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Sociol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Migration is not always by choice, but rather, influenced by circumstance. Displacement due to human-made disasters, such as armed conflict, constitutes forced migration, also known as involuntary migration. This paper examines the experience of forced displacement due to armed conflict and the risk of gender-based violence (GBV) in conflict zones in the southern Philippines, focusing on the survivors of the 2013 Zamboanga Siege and the 2017 Marawi Siege. The researcher examines the dynamics of violence during armed conflict from a gendered perspective and illuminates the extent to which gender-based violence exists on a continuum from personal, to community based and\/or state-sponsored violence. Drawing upon interviews and focus group discussions with internally displaced people (IDPs) in traditional evacuation centers, home-based evacuation arrangements, and\/or transitory sites, and with duty-bearers from Zamboanga City and the Islamic City of Marawi, this paper discusses the pathways to evacuation of IDPs from both locations and how these shaped the experiences of GBV among survivors. The researcher identifies common themes and nuances in experiences of personal, community, and state-sponsored gendered violence among women and girls and men and boys, who experienced involuntary migration through forced displacement. Migration is not always by choice, but rather, influenced by circumstance. Displacement due to human-made disasters, such as armed conflict, constitutes forced migration, also known as involuntary migration. This paper examines the experience of forced displacement due to armed conflict and the risk of gender-based violence (GBV) in conflict zones in the southern Philippines, focusing on the survivors of the 2013 Zamboanga Siege and the 2017 Marawi Siege. The researcher examines the dynamics of violence during armed conflict from a gendered perspective and illuminates the extent to which gender-based violence exists on a continuum from personal, to community based and\/or state-sponsored violence. Drawing upon interviews and focus group discussions with internally displaced people (IDPs) in traditional evacuation centers, home-based evacuation arrangements, and\/or transitory sites, and with duty-bearers from Zamboanga City and the Islamic City of Marawi, this paper discusses the pathways to evacuation of IDPs from both locations and how these shaped the experiences of GBV among survivors. The researcher identifies common themes and nuances in experiences of personal, community, and state-sponsored gendered violence among women and girls and men and boys, who experienced involuntary migration through forced displacement. This paper compares and contrasts the extent of armed conflict and the trends in GBV among forced migrants in both cities. The researcher exposes the incidences of gendered violence experienced by IDPs in Zamboanga, the vulnerability of women and children to domestic violence and trafficking, and the covert attempts to recruit men into extremist groups. Moreover, this paper looks into trends in extremist violence, militarism, and other forms of gendered violence among IDPs from Marawi and the risk of clan feud upon returning to their communities. The researcher highlights the links between gender, racial, ethnic, religious, and social class inequality in the Philippines and the vulnerability of people displaced by armed conflict. This paper delves into the continuity of violence at various levels and assesses the intersections between private and public violence confronting IDPs from Zamboanga and Marawi.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1655806","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T05:21:26Z","timestamp":1788412886000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Forced displacement and gendered violence in conflict zones in the southern Philippines: the experiences of internally displaced people from Zamboanga and Marawi"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Diana Therese Montejo","family":"Veloso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology and Behavioral Sciences, De La Salle University","place":["Manila, Philippines"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","author":"Aben","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref2","volume-title":"The Joys of Dislocation: Mindanao, Nation, and Region","author":"Abinales","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref3","volume-title":"State and Society in the Philippines","author":"Abinales","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref4","volume-title":"Balik-Terrorism (Reverting to Terrorism): The Return of the Abu Sayyaf","author":"Abuza","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref5","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref6","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref7","author":"Alberto","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref8","author":"Al-Jazeera","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref9","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref10","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref11","author":"Arguillas","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref12","year":"2002"},{"key":"ref13","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref14","author":"Atkinson","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref15","volume-title":"Gendered Worlds","author":"Aulette","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref16","author":"Banlaoi","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref17","first-page":"182","volume-title":"Theorizing Black Feminisms: The Visionary Paradigm of African-American Women","author":"Barbee","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref18","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref19","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1037\/13620-004","volume-title":"APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology, Volume 2: Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, and Biological","author":"Braun","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref21","author":"Bueza","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref22","author":"Cabato","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref23","first-page":"266","volume-title":"Reading between the Lines: Toward an Understanding of Current Social Problems","author":"Caiazza","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref24","author":"Cepeda","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref25","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref9003","volume-title":"Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment","author":"Collins","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref26","year":""},{"key":"ref9001","volume-title":"Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics","author":"Crenshaw","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref9002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039","article-title":"Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color","volume":"43","author":"Crenshaw","year":"1991","journal-title":"Stanford Law Review"},{"key":"ref27","volume-title":"Women, Race and Class","author":"Davis","year":"1983"},{"key":"ref28","volume-title":"Women, Culture, and Politics","author":"Davis","year":"1984"},{"key":"ref29","author":"Diola","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref30","volume-title":"Reconstructing Gender: A Multicultural Anthology","author":"Disch","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref31","author":"Dizon","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref32","author":"El Alam","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520923744","volume-title":"Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women\u2019s Lives","author":"Enloe","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/12259276.2004.11665976","article-title":"Wielding masculinity inside Abu Ghraib: making feminist sense of an American military scandal","volume":"10","author":"Enloe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Asian J. Women's Stud."},{"key":"ref35","author":"Esguerra","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref36","author":"Estremera","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref37","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref38","author":"Fonbuena","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref39","author":"Fonbuena","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref40","author":"Fonbuena","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref41","author":"Francisco","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref42","volume-title":"Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones","author":"Giles","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref43","volume-title":"War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War and Vice Versa","author":"Goldstein","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref44","volume-title":"Gender Violence in Africa: African Women\u2019s Responses","author":"Green","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref45","volume-title":"Women, Violence, and Male Power:Feminist Activism, Research, and Practice","author":"Hester","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref46","volume-title":"Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment","author":"Hill Collins","year":"1990"},{"key":"ref9010","volume-title":"Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment","author":"Hill Collins","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref47","author":"Hincks","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref48","volume-title":"Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center","author":"Hooks","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769611","DOI":"10.3389\/fhumd.2021.769611","article-title":"Structural and symbolic violence exacerbates the risks and consequences of sexual and gender-based violence for forced migrant women","volume":"3","author":"Hourani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Human Dyn"},{"key":"ref50","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref51","year":""},{"key":"ref52","year":""},{"key":"ref53","year":"2007"},{"key":"ref54","volume-title":"Mindanao: The long Journey to Peace and Prosperity","author":"Hutchcroft","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref56","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref57","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref58","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref59","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.28.110601.140936","article-title":"Violence in social life","volume":"28","author":"Jackman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref9004","first-page":"98","article-title":"Patriarchy, the System: An It, Not a He, a Them, or an Us","author":"Johnson","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref61","first-page":"34","volume-title":"Women, Violence, and Male Power: Feminist Activism, Research, and Practice","author":"Kelly","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref62","author":"Lagsa","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801211436094","article-title":"Gender-based violence against civilian women in post-invasion Iraq: (re)politicizing George W. Bush\u2019s silent legacy","volume":"17","author":"Lee-Koo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"ref64","volume-title":"The Creation of Patriarchy","author":"Lerner","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref65","volume-title":"Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics","author":"Lorber","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref66","author":"Maitem","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref67","author":"Marcelo","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref68","first-page":"307","volume-title":"Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically about Global Issues","author":"Marshall","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520919648","volume-title":"Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines","author":"McKenna","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref70","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref71","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref72","volume-title":"SOCTA Philippines 2014: Serious and Organized Crime Threat Assessments","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref73","volume-title":"Serious and Organized Crime Threat Assessments-Philippines: An Overview of Serious and Organized Crimes Under the Administration of His Excellency Benigno S. Aquino III","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref74","author":"Padayhag","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref9005","article-title":"Government allots P3 million for shelter of internally displaced persons in Zamboanga","volume":"3","year":"2016","journal-title":"Business Mirror"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3422","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605251338785","article-title":"I will experience this trauma over and over again: sexual and gender-based violence, forced migration, and structural violence","volume":"41","author":"Phillimore","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref76","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref77","author":"Placido","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref78","first-page":"66","volume-title":"Women, Violence, and male power: Feminist Activism, Research, and Practice","author":"Radford","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref79","author":"Rawi","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref80","author":"Rood","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref81","author":"Santos","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref82","author":"Selk","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref83","volume-title":"Sexualities: Identities, Behaviors, and Society","author":"Sheffield","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1172954","DOI":"10.3389\/fhumd.2023.1172954","article-title":"The use and abuse of forced migration and displacement as a weapon of war","volume":"5","author":"Simeon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Human Dyn"},{"key":"ref9011","article-title":"It\u2019s Over\u2019: Military, Defense Leaders Declare End to Zamboanga Siege","volume":"28","author":"Sinapit","year":"2013","journal-title":"InterAksyon.com"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1420124","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2024.1420124","article-title":"The continuum of gender-based violence experienced by migrant and refugee women in Canada: perspectives from key informants","volume":"9","author":"Sisic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Sociol."},{"key":"ref86","first-page":"263","volume-title":"Reading between the Lines: Toward an Understanding of Current Social Problems","author":"Steinem","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref87","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref88","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref89","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref90","year":"2009"},{"key":"ref91","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref92","author":"Ty","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref93","year":""},{"key":"ref94","year":""},{"key":"ref95","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref96","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref97","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref9006","year":"2020","journal-title":"Marawi Update: The Last of the Evacuation Centers"},{"key":"ref9007","article-title":"Nearly 360,000 remain displaced by Marawi Conflict, Humanitarian Bulletin Philippines no. 7","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref98","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref99","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref100","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref101","author":"Unson","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref102","author":"Uy","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref103","first-page":"97","volume-title":"Displacement and Disqualification: Its Surfaces and Silhouettes","author":"Veloso","year":""},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703193","DOI":"10.3389\/fhumd.2021.703193","article-title":"Safety and security issues, gender-based violence and militarism in the time of armed conflict: the experiences of internally displaced people from Marawi City","volume":"3","author":"Veloso","year":"","journal-title":"Front. Human Dyn."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.89.10.1474","article-title":"The impact of political conflict on women: the case of Afghanistan","volume":"89","author":"Wali","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref9012","article-title":"Over 120,000 people remain displaced 3 years after Philippines\u2019 Marawi battle","volume":"23","author":"Westerman","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPR."},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243287001002002","article-title":"Doing gender","volume":"1","author":"West","year":"1987","journal-title":"Gender Soc."},{"key":"ref107","first-page":"120","volume-title":"Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically about Global Issues","author":"Rothenberg","year":"2006"},{"key":"ref108","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref109","author":"Zamora","year":"2001"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Sociology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1655806\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T13:15:42Z","timestamp":1788959742000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1655806\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"references-count":118,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1655806"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1655806","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-7775"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-7775","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"article-number":"1655806"}}