{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T21:55:18Z","timestamp":1781906118714,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Sociol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite sustained advances in medical innovation and expanded access to healthcare services, inequalities in the uptake of health check-ups persist, pointing to enduring mechanisms in the reproduction of health inequalities. Although Fundamental Cause Theory (FCT) has been widely used to examine such inequalities, it has largely been operationalized at the individual level, with limited attention to institutional arrangements and insufficient consideration of how mechanisms of inequality shift over time.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Drawing on the 2014 life history data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), this research employs accelerated failure time (AFT) models to assess how China\u2019s\n                      <jats:italic>hukou<\/jats:italic>\n                      system operates as an institutional determinant shaping inequalities in the timing of initial health check-ups. We analyze blood pressure tests and blood tests for glucose or cholesterol, vision and dental exams, and breast and prostate cancer screenings to assess how inequality unfolds across different stages of medical innovation diffusion.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The results indicate that urban\n                      <jats:italic>hukou<\/jats:italic>\n                      holders consistently undergo health check-ups earlier than their rural counterparts across all types of services. Among those with rural\n                      <jats:italic>hukou<\/jats:italic>\n                      , urban residence is associated with earlier uptake, particularly for blood tests, dental exams, and vision exams. As medical innovations diffuse,\n                      <jats:italic>hukou<\/jats:italic>\n                      -based inequalities tend to narrow for services at later stages of diffusion but widen for those at earlier stages.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This research reveals a dynamic substitution of mechanisms through which health inequalities are reproduced, highlighting the enduring institutional influence of the\n                      <jats:italic>hukou<\/jats:italic>\n                      system and its interaction with the diffusion of medical innovations in sustaining health inequalities over time.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1702900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T04:40:12Z","timestamp":1778215212000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The line is drawn, the fate is cast: urban\u2013rural inequalities in the timing of initial health check-ups in China"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Siyuan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Ghent University","place":["Ghent, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Piet","family":"Bracke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Ghent University","place":["Ghent, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katrijn","family":"Delaruelle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Ghent University","place":["Ghent, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2014.12.011","article-title":"Social identity and inequality: the impact of China\u2019s hukou system","volume":"123","author":"Afridi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Public Econ."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61363-X","article-title":"China\u2019s human resources for health: quantity, quality, and distribution","volume":"372","author":"Anand","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146518759069","article-title":"Institutions, incorporation, and inequality: the case of minority health inequalities in Europe","volume":"59","author":"Bakhtiari","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23780231231174832","DOI":"10.1177\/23780231231174832","article-title":"The structural sources of socioeconomic inequalities in health: a cross-national perspective","volume":"9","author":"Barnes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Socius"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1057\/sth.2015.19","article-title":"An institutional theory of welfare state effects on the distribution of population health","volume":"13","author":"Beckfield","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Theory Health"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxp002","article-title":"Epi + demos + cracy: linking political systems and priorities to the magnitude of health inequities\u2014evidence, gaps, and a research agenda","volume":"31","author":"Beckfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764213487343","article-title":"Health inequalities in global context","volume":"57","author":"Beckfield","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305741000001351","article-title":"The Hukou system and rural-urban migration in China: processes and changes","volume":"160","author":"Chan","year":"1999","journal-title":"China Q."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650905000301","article-title":"Fundamental cause theory, technological innovation, and health disparities: the case of cholesterol in the era of statins","volume":"50","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2025.117719","article-title":"Walking to the same winter: urban-rural disparities in pain among middle-aged and older Chinese","volume":"366","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chieco.2024.102231","article-title":"Recent progress in hukou reform and labor market integration in China: 1996\u20132022","volume":"87","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"China Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305741000043083","article-title":"The origins and social consequences of China\u2019s Hukou system","volume":"139","author":"Cheng","year":"1994","journal-title":"China Q."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-090320-094912","article-title":"A retrospective on fundamental cause theory: state of the literature and goals for the future","volume":"47","author":"Clouston","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2018.07.004","article-title":"Do rising tides lift all boats? Racial disparities in health across the lifecourse among middle-class African-Americans and whites","volume":"6","author":"Colen","year":"2018","journal-title":"SSM Popul. Health"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14034948221118215","DOI":"10.1177\/14034948221118215","article-title":"Cervical cancer (over-) screening in Europe: balancing organised and opportunistic programmes","volume":"51","author":"De Prez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scand. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-021-01548-6","article-title":"Cervical cancer screening programs and their context-dependent effect on inequalities in screening uptake: a dynamic interplay between public health policy and welfare state redistribution","volume":"20","author":"De Prez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Equity Health"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2015.09.040","article-title":"Educational expansion and the education gradient in health: a hierarchical age-period-cohort analysis","volume":"145","author":"Delaruelle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5672","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18115672","article-title":"Benefits associated with China\u2019s social health insurance schemes: trend analysis and associated factors since health reform","volume":"18","author":"Dong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2020.43.49","article-title":"Estimating rural\u2013urban disparities in self-rated health in China: impact of choice of urban definition","volume":"43","author":"Dor\u00e9lien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Demogr. Res."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036121","article-title":"Herd immunity: history, theory, practice","volume":"15","author":"Fine","year":"1993","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-7261-3_4","volume-title":"Handbook of the Sociology of Health, Illness, and Healing","author":"Freese","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-016-1307-8","article-title":"Factors predicting health services use among older people in China: an analysis of the China health and retirement longitudinal study 2013","volume":"16","author":"Gong","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci11050194","article-title":"Hukou system influencing the structural, institutional inequalities in China: the multifaceted disadvantages rural Hukou holders face","volume":"11","author":"Hung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.3406","article-title":"Evolving health expenditure landscape of the BRICS nations and projections to 2025","volume":"26","author":"Jakovljevic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Econ."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09619-z","article-title":"Never and under cervical cancer screening in Switzerland and Belgium: trends and inequalities","volume":"20","author":"Jolidon","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S25","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.1501","article-title":"The new cooperative medical scheme in rural China: does more coverage mean more service and better health?","volume":"18","author":"Lei","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Econ."},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1002\/hpm.2424","article-title":"China\u2019s health care system reform: progress and prospects","volume":"32","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Plann. Manag."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1080\/21620555.2014.990326","article-title":"Hukou-based stratification in urban China\u2019s segmented economy","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-018-2905-4","article-title":"Urban-rural disparities in health care utilization among Chinese adults from 1993 to 2011","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-081715-074435","article-title":"China\u2019s great migration and the prospects of a more integrated society","volume":"42","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0009.00096","article-title":"Social epidemiology and the fundamental cause concept: on the structuring of effective cancer screens by socioeconomic status","volume":"76","author":"Link","year":"1998","journal-title":"Milbank Q."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.2307\/2626958","article-title":"Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease","volume":"35","author":"Link","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jce.2004.11.001","article-title":"Institution and inequality: the hukou system in China","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Comp. Econ."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2427.2009.00848.x","article-title":"Access to housing in urban China","volume":"33","author":"Logan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Urban Reg. Res."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12142","DOI":"10.3390\/su141912142","article-title":"The impact of higher education on health literacy: a comparative study between urban and rural China","volume":"14","author":"Long","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chieco.2017.11.007","article-title":"Labor market segmentation by industry sectors and wage gaps between migrants and local urban residents in urban China","volume":"47","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"China Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00375","article-title":"Healthcare, insurance, and medical expenditure of the floating population in Beijing, China","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650704800303","article-title":"Fundamental causes of health disparities: stratification, the welfare state, and health in the United States and Iceland","volume":"48","author":"Olafsdottir","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1080\/1369183x.2013.723245","article-title":"Social capital, migration and health in the urban Chinese context","volume":"39","author":"Palmer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Ethn. Migr. Stud."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chieco.2014.09.010","article-title":"Economic growth and the geographic maldistribution of health care resources: evidence from China, 1949-2010","volume":"31","author":"Qin","year":"2014","journal-title":"China Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.2307\/2096319","article-title":"The links between education and health","volume":"60","author":"Ross","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-022-01073-z","article-title":"The radically unequal distribution of Covid-19 vaccinations: a predictable yet avoidable symptom of the fundamental causes of inequality","volume":"9","author":"Rydland","year":"2022","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113145","article-title":"Educational inequalities in high- vs. low-preventable health conditions: exploring the fundamental cause theory","volume":"267","author":"Rydland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2019.102150","article-title":"Hukou system, mechanisms, and health stratification across the life course in rural and urban China","volume":"58","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-8913024","article-title":"The citizenship advantage in psychological well-being: an examination of the Hukou system in China","volume":"58","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1080\/21620555.2019.1616541","article-title":"Between state and market: Hukou, nonstandard employment, and bad jobs in urban China","volume":"51","author":"Stainback","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098014547367","article-title":"A distributional analysis of wage discrimination against migrant workers in China\u2019s urban labour market","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"gbae195","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbae195","article-title":"Life course patterns of work history and cognitive trajectories among community-dwelling older adults","volume":"80","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-019-0486-6","article-title":"The development and reform of public health in China from 1949 to 2019","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1548","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9566.13147","article-title":"The diffusion of innovative diabetes technologies as a fundamental cause of social inequalities in health. The Nord-Tr\u00f8ndelag health study, Norway","volume":"42","author":"Weiss","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sociol. Health Illn."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthpol.2018.02.001","article-title":"Participants, physicians or programmes: participants\u2019 educational level and initiative in cancer screening","volume":"122","author":"Willems","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Policy"},{"key":"ref52","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2753\/CSA2162-0555440202","article-title":"The household registration system and rural-urban educational inequality in contemporary China","volume":"44","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073018-022516","article-title":"Inequality and social stratification in postsocialist China","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.2004.0010","article-title":"The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955\u20131996","volume":"41","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e996","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(23)00186-X","article-title":"Cancer screening in China: a steep road from evidence to implementation","volume":"8","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098017690471","article-title":"The influence of hukou and college education in China\u2019s labour market","volume":"55","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936275","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.936275","article-title":"Awareness, utilization and health outcomes of National Essential Public Health Service among Migrants in China","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e040437","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2020-040437","article-title":"Utilisation of health services among urban patients who had an ischaemic stroke with different health insurance - a cross-sectional study in China","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyu051","article-title":"Do population-based interventions widen or narrow socioeconomic inequalities? The case of breastfeeding promotion","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"daab040","DOI":"10.1093\/heapro\/daab040","article-title":"How does health literacy affect the utilization of basic public health services in Chinese migrants?","volume":"37","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2023.116262","article-title":"Mechanism substitution in preventive innovations: dissecting the reproduction of health inequalities in the United States","volume":"337","author":"Zapata-Moya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/14461242.2019.1601027","article-title":"The (re)production of health inequalities through the process of disseminating preventive innovations: the dynamic influence of socioeconomic status","volume":"28","author":"Zapata-Moya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113637","article-title":"The relationship between rural to urban migration in China and risk of depression in later life: an investigation of life course effects","volume":"270","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpx139","article-title":"Impact of the National Essential Public Health Services Policy on hypertension control in China","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1865","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61355-0","article-title":"China\u2019s barefoot doctor: past, present, and future","volume":"372","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2016.06.020","article-title":"Occupational segregation and earnings inequality: rural migrants and local workers in urban China","volume":"61","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dys203","article-title":"Cohort profile: the China health and retirement longitudinal study (CHARLS)","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-018-3522-y","article-title":"Comparing the needs and utilization of health services between urban residents and rural-to-urban migrants in China from 2012 to 2016","volume":"18","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2006.04.002","article-title":"China\u2019s floating population and their settlement intention in the cities: beyond the Hukou reform","volume":"31","author":"Zhu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2017.08.025","article-title":"Rural-urban disparities in unmet long-term care needs in China: the role of the hukou status","volume":"191","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1111\/spol.12368","article-title":"Pension system reform in China: who gets what pensions?","volume":"52","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soc. Policy Adm."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S349","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/62.5.S349","article-title":"An examination of urban versus rural mortality in China using community and individual data","volume":"62","author":"Zimmer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Sociology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1702900\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T04:40:22Z","timestamp":1778215222000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1702900\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"references-count":73,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1702900"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1702900","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-7775"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-7775","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"article-number":"1702900"}}