{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T08:20:38Z","timestamp":1787732438524,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002848","name":"Comisi\u00f3n Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica y Tecnol\u00f3gica","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002848","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Sociol."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The idea of functional differentiation is central to the framework which Luhmann developed for observing and analyzing the complexity of modern society. He analyzed its key social systems as functionally differentiated and specialized systems, such as the economy, politics, science, law, religion, or education. The modern family, however, is often defined as a multi-functional institution. It is seen to fulfill and integrate different functions, both for the adult members (emotional and psychological support, love) and for the children (education). Departing from Luhmann's framework, we examine whether and how such a multi-functional institution fits within a context defined by functional differentiation. We look at the structural pressures with which the family is confronted, especially in educational contexts. We argue that the school system has increasingly become able to claim jurisdiction over education. We look at specific forms of structural coupling, such as homework, which the school system uses to take control of its dependence on the family, and discuss why the family is now often reduced to some kind of preparatory institution, whose yardstick, as far as education is concerned, ultimately is their children's success at school. We conclude with more general reflections on the characteristics of functional specialization and differentiation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1848605","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T07:47:50Z","timestamp":1787730470000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The pressures of functional differentiation: education, homework, and schooled families"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Raf","family":"Vanderstraeten","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Ghent University","place":["Ghent, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julio","family":"Labra\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Education, Universidad de Tarapac\u00e1","place":["Arica, Chile"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom\u00e1s","family":"Koch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Social Sciences, Universidad de Playa Ancha","place":["Valpara\u00edso, Chile"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","volume-title":"The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor","author":"Abbott","year":"2014"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Culture and Pedagogy: International Comparisons in Primary Education","author":"Alexander","year":"2000"},{"key":"B3","author":"Baecker","year":""},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9780804790482","volume-title":"The Schooled Society: The Educational Transformation of Global Culture","author":"Baker","year":"2014"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.4337\/9781803922126.00053","article-title":"\u201cHuman capital theory and the global education revolution,\u201d","author":"Baker","year":"2025","journal-title":"Elgar Encyclopedia of Global Social Theory"},{"key":"B6","article-title":"\u201cNeuerliche Anfragen an die theorie der funktionalen differenzierung,\u201d","volume-title":"Beobachter der Moderne: Beitr\u00e4ge zu Niklas Luhmanns \u201cDie Gesellschaft der","author":"Berger","year":"2003"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1177\/026327696013003002","article-title":"On the family as a realized category","volume":"13","author":"Bourdieu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Theory Cult. Soc."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.7146\/ejie.v1i1.132566","article-title":"Unveiling exclusion: a conceptual exploration of parent pedagogicalisation","volume":"1","author":"Bruin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Incl. Educ."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.36253\/rief-10579","article-title":"\u201cDon't complain and do it properly\u201d:\u2018Pedagogicalized parents' and the morality of doing homework","volume":"20","author":"Colla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rivista italiana di educazione familiare"},{"key":"B10","volume-title":"Rapport et projet de d\u00e9cret sur l'organisation g\u00e9n\u00e9rale de l'instruction publique","author":"Condorcet","year":"1792"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483329420","volume-title":"The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents","author":"Cooper","year":"2007"},{"key":"B12","volume-title":"Greedy Institutions: Patterns of Undivided Commitment","author":"Coser","year":"1974"},{"key":"B13","author":"De Garmo","year":"1899","journal-title":"The Essentials of Method"},{"key":"B14","volume-title":"The School and Society.","author":"Dewey","year":"1915"},{"key":"B15","volume-title":"Creating the Dropout: An institutional and Social History of School Failure","author":"Dorn","year":"1996"},{"key":"B16","volume-title":"The Division of Labour in Society.","author":"Durkheim","year":"2013"},{"key":"B17","volume-title":"Gedanken von den zur Verbesserung der Schulen nothwendigen Erfordernissen.","author":"Ehlers","year":"1766"},{"key":"B18","volume-title":"The University and the Global Knowledge Society.","author":"Frank","year":"2020"},{"key":"B19","volume-title":"Les Invariants P\u00e9dagogiques.","author":"Freinet","year":"1964"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1086\/444143","volume":"105","author":"Gill","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Educ."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1177\/016146810310500509","article-title":"Parents and the politics of homework: some historical perspectives","volume":"105","author":"Gill","year":"2003","journal-title":"Teach. Coll. Rec."},{"key":"B22","volume-title":"A Place Called School. Prospects for the Future","author":"Goodlad","year":"1984"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/23780231251338676","article-title":"The Schooled Society Index: measuring the centrality of schooling in the twenty-first century from a global perspective","author":"Kavadias","year":"2025","journal-title":"Socius"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1111\/edth.70092","article-title":"The paradox of educationalization: semantic expansion and the structural limits of modern education","volume":"76","author":"Labra\u00f1a","year":"2026","journal-title":"Educ. Theory."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1111\/edth.70043","article-title":"Educational semantics, Anthropocene, and the human individual: a new paradigm for the education system?","volume":"75","author":"Labra\u00f1a","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Theory"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1080\/09620214.2025.2461718","article-title":"Nation-building and mass education in Chile: the rationales behind the expansion of education in Chile, 1810-1920","volume":"34","author":"Labra\u00f1a","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Stud. Sociol. Educ."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1080\/09540253.2020.1763920","volume":"33","author":"Lehner-Mear","year":"2021","journal-title":"Maternal identities and cyber-agency in the primary school homework debate. Gend. Educ."},{"key":"B28","volume-title":"Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study.","author":"Lortie","year":"1975"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.2307\/3340510","article-title":"Differentiation of society","volume":"2","author":"Luhmann","year":"1977","journal-title":"Canad. J. Sociol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7312\/luhm90862","volume-title":"The Differentiation of Society.","author":"Luhmann","year":"1982"},{"key":"B31","first-page":"172","article-title":"\u201cThe autopoiesis of social systems,\u201d","author":"Luhmann","year":"1986","journal-title":"Sociocybernetic paradoxes. Observation, Control and Evolution of Self-Steering Systems"},{"key":"B32","volume-title":"Archimedes und Wir.","author":"Luhmann","year":"1987"},{"key":"B33","first-page":"127","article-title":"Warum AGIL?","volume":"40","author":"Luhmann","year":"1988","journal-title":"K\u00f6ln. Z. Soziol. Sozialpsychol."},{"key":"B34","volume-title":"Soziologische Aufkl\u00e4rung 5: Konstruktivistische Perspektiven","author":"Luhmann","year":""},{"key":"B35","first-page":"409","article-title":"\u201cThe paradox of system differentiation and the evolution of society,\u201d","author":"Luhmann","year":"","journal-title":"Differentiation Theory and Social Change. Comparative and Historical Perspectives"},{"key":"B36","volume-title":"Social Systems.","author":"Luhmann","year":"1995"},{"key":"B37","volume-title":"Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft","author":"Luhmann","year":"1997"},{"key":"B38","volume-title":"Das Erziehungssystem der Gesellschaft.","author":"Luhmann","year":"2002"},{"key":"B39","volume-title":"Schriften zur P\u00e4dagogik.","author":"Luhmann","year":"2004"},{"key":"B40","volume-title":"Theory of Society, Vol. 1","author":"Luhmann","year":"2012"},{"key":"B41","volume-title":"Theory of Society, Vol 2","author":"Luhmann","year":"2013"},{"key":"B42","volume-title":"Systemtheorie der Gesellschaft.","author":"Luhmann","year":"2017"},{"key":"B43","volume-title":"Erziehung: Funktion und System.","author":"Luhmann","year":"2026"},{"key":"B44","volume-title":"Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungssystem.","author":"Luhmann","year":"1988"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1080\/01425690095135","article-title":"Disenchanted evenings: the social organization of talk in parent-teacher consultations in UK secondary schools","volume":"21","author":"MacLure","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br. J. Sociol. Educ."},{"key":"B46","volume-title":"Lectures and Annual Reports on Education.","author":"Mann","year":"1867"},{"key":"B47","first-page":"60","article-title":"\u201cThe structure of educational organizations,\u201d","author":"Meyer","year":"1983","journal-title":"The Dynamics of Organizational Change in Education"},{"key":"B48","volume-title":"The Montessori Method","author":"Montessori","year":""},{"key":"B49","first-page":"297","article-title":"The school class as a social system: some of its functions in American society","volume":"29","author":"Parsons","year":"1959","journal-title":"Harv. Educ. Rev."},{"key":"B50","volume-title":"Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives.","author":"Parsons","year":"1966"},{"key":"B51","volume-title":"The System of Modern Societies.","author":"Parsons","year":"1971"},{"key":"B52","volume-title":"American Society: A Theory of the Societal Community.","author":"Parsons","year":"2007"},{"key":"B53","volume-title":"Family, Socialization and Interaction Process","author":"Parsons","year":"1955"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674423626","volume-title":"The American University","author":"Parsons","year":"1973"},{"key":"B55","volume-title":"Economy and Society","author":"Parsons","year":"1956"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-1196-3","volume-title":"The \u2018hidden curriculum' of Vietnam's English School Textbooks.","author":"Phuong","year":"2024"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-137-08023-3_2","article-title":"\u201cGoverning the child and pedagogicalization of the parent: a historical excursus into the present,\u201d","author":"Popkewitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Governing Children, Families and Education. Restructuring the Welfare State"},{"key":"B58","first-page":"11","article-title":"Ten systems: toward a canon of function systems","volume":"22","author":"Roth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cybern. Hum. Know."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003325949","volume-title":"Motherhood, Childhood, and Parenting in an Age of Education: An Invited Invasion","author":"Schaub","year":"2023"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1515\/sosys-2005-0210","article-title":"Funktionale Differenzierung und gesellschaftsweiter Primat von Teilsystemen\u2013offene Fragen bei Parsons und Luhmann","volume":"11","author":"Schimank","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soz. Syst."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1177\/1368431014543618","article-title":"Modernity as a functionally differentiated capitalist society: a general theoretical model","volume":"18","author":"Schimank","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soc. Theory"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-531-93143-2_19","article-title":"\u201cPerspektiven der neueren Differenzierungstheorie,\u201d","author":"Schwinn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soziale Differenzierung: Handlungstheoretische Zug\u00e4nge in der Diskussion"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444396621.ch31","article-title":"\u201cNiklas Luhmann,\u201d","author":"Stichweh","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Major Social Theorists, Vol. II: Contemporary Social Theorists"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139856041.005","article-title":"\u201cThe history and systematics of functional differentiation in sociology,\u201d","author":"Stichweh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bringing Sociology to International Relations. World Politics as Differentiation Theory"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4337\/9781803922126.00024","article-title":"\u201cSociological systems theory and world society,\u201d","author":"Stichweh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Elgar Encyclopedia of Global Social Theory"},{"key":"B66","author":"Stichweh","year":""},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11186-025-09621-7","article-title":"Terminological confusion in theories of social, structural, or functional differentiation: some notes and some suggestions","volume":"54","author":"Taylor","year":"2025","journal-title":"Theory Soc."},{"key":"B68","author":"Trapp","year":""},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023460414243","article-title":"The relationship between homework and achievement\u2014still much of a mystery","volume":"15","author":"Trautwein","year":"2003","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1515\/zfsoz-1978-0205","article-title":"Anfragen an die Theorie der gesellschaftlichen differenzierung","volume":"7","author":"Tyrell","year":"1978","journal-title":"Z. Soziol."},{"key":"B71","first-page":"81","article-title":"\u201cGesichtspunkte zur institutionellen Trennung von Familie und Schule,\u201d","author":"Tyrell","year":"1985","journal-title":"Eltern-Sch\u00fcler-Lehrer: Zur Elternpartizipation an Schule"},{"key":"B72","first-page":"102","article-title":"\u201cDie \u2018Anpassung' der Familie an die Schule,\u201d","author":"Tyrell","year":"1987","journal-title":"P\u00e4dagogik, Erziehungswissenschaft und Systemtheorie"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1515\/sosys-2006-0207","article-title":"Zweierlei Differenzierung: funktionale und Ebenendifferenzierung im Fr\u00fchwerk Niklas Luhmanns","volume":"12","author":"Tyrell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soz. Syst."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5354\/0719-0527.2017.46139","article-title":"Familia y escuela: algunas pensamientos sobre la diferenciaci\u00f3n interna del sistema de la educaci\u00f3n","volume":"19","author":"Tyrell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Mad Univ. Chile"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-4446.2000.00581.x","article-title":"Autopoiesis and socialization. On Luhmann's reconceptualization of communication and socialization","volume":"51","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br. J. Sociol"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1002\/sres.481","article-title":"The autopoiesis of educational organizations. The impact of the organizational setting on educational interaction","volume":"19","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2002","journal-title":"Syst. Res. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1177\/0001699314565213","article-title":"Inclusion ideals and inclusion problems: Parsons and Luhmann on religion and secularization","volume":"58","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Sociol."},{"key":"B78","first-page":"271","article-title":"\u201cNiklas Luhmann and Talcott Parsons\u201d","volume-title":"The Routledge International Handbook of Talcott Parsons Studies","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2022"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/20020317.2023.2277504","article-title":"The differentiation of family and school education: historical conditions and current tensions","volume":"9","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nordic J. Stud. Educ. Policy"},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1080\/00309230.2021.1881800","article-title":"Educational expansion and socio-geographical inequality (Belgium, 1961-2011)","volume":"59","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2023","journal-title":"Paedagog. Hist."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sres.70096","article-title":"When the whole is less than the sum of its parts: structural coupling in education","author":"Vanderstraeten","year":"2026","journal-title":"Syst. Res. Behav. Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Sociology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1848605\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T07:47:59Z","timestamp":1787730479000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1848605\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"references-count":81,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1848605"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fsoc.2026.1848605","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-7775"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-7775","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"article-number":"1848605"}}