{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T23:01:35Z","timestamp":1790118095577,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Toxicol."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Beauvericin (BEA), enniatin B (ENN B), and moniliformin (MON), mainly produced by Fusarium species, are often described as emerging mycotoxins due to their frequent detection in cereals and cereal\u2010based products and their current lack of regulatory limits. Despite increasing evidence regarding their individual toxicities\u2013including immunotoxic, genotoxic, reproductive, and cardiotoxic effects\u2013information on their combined toxicity and the underlying mechanisms remains limited. To address this gap, this study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic effects, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and interaction patterns of BEA, ENN B, and MON in human Jurkat T cells following a 24\u2010hour exposure under individual, dual, and triple treatment conditions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The experimental approach evaluated cellular responses and toxicological interactions across single and combined exposures. Cytotoxicity was assessed using the MTT assay to determine cell viability, while intracellular ROS levels were measured using a fluorescence\u2010based assay. To analyze the dual and mixture interaction patterns among the mycotoxins, the study utilized the Chou\u2013Talalay method for quantitative assessment of synergism and antagonism.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The individual toxicity assessments yielded IC\n                      <jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>\n                      values of 1.81 \u03bcM for BEA, 4.47 \u03bcM for ENN B, and 40.45 \u03bcM for MON, establishing the potency ranking of BEA &amp;gt; ENN B &amp;gt; MON. Across all treatments, cell viability decreased in a concentration-dependent manner, which was consistently accompanied by an elevation in intracellular ROS fluorescence signals. Combination Index (CI) analysis of binary mixtures (BEA + ENN B, BEA + MON, and ENN B + MON) revealed synergistic interactions at low to moderate effect levels (IC\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u2013IC\n                      <jats:sub>50<\/jats:sub>\n                      ), which shifted toward antagonism at higher effect levels (IC\n                      <jats:sub>75<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u2013IC\n                      <jats:sub>90<\/jats:sub>\n                      ). In contrast, the ternary mixture of all three mycotoxins (BEA + ENN B + MON) predominantly exhibited sustained synergism across the entire evaluated concentration range (IC\n                      <jats:sub>10<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u2013IC\n                      <jats:sub>90<\/jats:sub>\n                      ).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Overall, these findings demonstrate that co-exposure to BEA, ENN B, and MON leads to complex interactive toxicities, with the ternary mixture showing persistent synergistic effects based on Combination Index analysis. Although these cellular responses strongly correlate with elevated ROS\u2010associated fluorescence signals, direct experimental validation is still required to confirm the specific downstream molecular mechanisms involved.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/ftox.2026.1924250","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T22:10:33Z","timestamp":1790115033000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Combined exposure to emerging Fusarium mycotoxins produces concentration-dependent synergistic toxicity in Jurkat T cells"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Chanamon","family":"Maleeratana","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Phattarawadee","family":"Wattanasuntorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saranya","family":"Poapolathep","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Imourana","family":"Alassane-Kpembi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Biomedicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al , , QC","place":["Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johanna","family":"Fink-Gremmels","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University","place":["Utrecht, Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabelle P.","family":"Oswald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Toulouse University, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS","place":["Toulouse, France"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amnart","family":"Poapolathep","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University","place":["Bangkok, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0075625","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.00756-25","article-title":"Characterization of the bacterial and fungal diversity in habitats of Corsica Island","volume":"91","author":"Aghzaf","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. 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