{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T05:04:52Z","timestamp":1790226292085,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hypotension is a common occurrence, especially in anesthetized patients and in critical patients suffering from hypovolemia due to shock and sepsis. Hypotension can also occur in normovolemic animals, anesthetized or conscious, under conditions of vasodilation or decreased cardiac function. The main consequence of hypotension is decreased organ perfusion and tissue injury\/dysfunction. In the human literature there is no consensus on what is the threshold value for hypotension, and ranges from &amp;lt; 80 to &amp;lt; 100 mmHg for systolic blood pressure and from &amp;lt; 50 to &amp;lt; 70 mmHg for mean arterial blood pressure have been referenced for intraoperative hypotension. In veterinary medicine, similar values are referenced, despite marked differences in normal arterial blood pressure between species and with respect to humans. Therapeutic intervention involves fluid therapy to normalize volemia and use of sympathomimetics to enhance cardiac function and regulate peripheral vascular resistance. Despite these therapeutic measures, there is a subset of patients that are seemingly refractory and exhibit persistent hypotension. This review covers the physiological aspects that govern arterial blood pressure control and blood flow to tissues\/organs, the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in hypotension and refractory hypotension, and therapeutic considerations and expectations that include proper interpretation of cardiovascular parameters, fluid recommendations and therapy rates, use of sympathomimetics and vasopressors, and newer approaches derived from the human literature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.621696","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T04:35:48Z","timestamp":1615350948000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Fluid Resuscitation for Refractory Hypotension"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Valverde","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119421375.ch4","article-title":"Monitoring anesthetized patients","volume-title":"Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones","author":"Haskins","year":"2015"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts","author":"Klabunde","year":"2012"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"419","article-title":"Evaluation of the arterial blood pressure of dogs by two noninvasive methods","volume":"49","author":"Chalifoux","year":"1985","journal-title":"Can J Comp Med."},{"key":"B4","first-page":"156","article-title":"Reference cardiopulmonary values in normal dogs","volume":"55","author":"Haskins","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comp Med."},{"key":"B5","first-page":"236","article-title":"Effects of Saffan on cardiopulmonary function in healthy cats","volume":"51","author":"Dyson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Can J Vet Res."},{"key":"B6","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cardiopulmonary effects of a ketamine hydrochloride\/acepromazine combination in healthy cats","volume":"52","author":"Ingwersen","year":"1988","journal-title":"Can J Vet Res."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2007.12.008","article-title":"Response of cats to familiar and unfamiliar human contact using continuous direct arterial blood pressure measurement","volume":"85","author":"Slingerland","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2001.9695109","article-title":"Cardiopulmonary effects of three differente anaesthesia protocols in cats","volume":"23","author":"Akkerdaas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet Quart."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.2746\/042516408X342984","article-title":"Behavioural and cardiorespiratory effects of a constant rate infusion of medetomidine and morphine for sedation during standing laparoscopy in horses","volume":"41","author":"Solano","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet J."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.13085","article-title":"Effects of vatinoxan on cardiorespiratory function and gastrointestinal motility during constant-rate medetomidine infusion in standing horses","volume":"51","author":"Tapio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Equine Vet J."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012373898-1.50018-8","article-title":"Anesthesia and analgesia of ruminants","volume-title":"Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals, 2nd Edition","author":"Valverde","year":"2008"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.43.3.437","article-title":"Pressor responses to norepinephrine in rabbits with 3-day and 30-day renal artery stenosis. The role of angiotensin IICirc Res","volume":"43","author":"Ichikawa","year":"1978"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(97)00145-5","article-title":"24-hour recordings of blood pressure, heart rate and behavioural activity in rabbits by radio telemetry: effects of feeding and hypotension","volume":"62","author":"van den Buuse","year":"1997","journal-title":"Physiol Behav."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"H1110","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00626.2002","article-title":"Pregnancy alters hemodynamic responses to hemorhage in conscious rabbits","volume":"284","author":"Clow","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.2012.064972","article-title":"Comparison of blood pressure and sympathetic activity of rabbits in their home cage and the laboratory environment","volume":"97","author":"Lim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp Physiol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1097\/01.anes.0000270724.40897.8e","article-title":"Incidence of intraoperative hypotension as a function of the chosen definition","volume":"107","author":"Bijker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3182a10e26","article-title":"Relationship between intraoperative mean arterial pressure and clinical outcomes after noncardiac surgery","volume":"119","author":"Walsh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2018.04.036","article-title":"Intraoperative hypotension and the risk of postoperative adverse outcomes: a systematic review","volume":"121","author":"Wesselink","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9592.2009.03140.x","article-title":"How do pediatric anesthesiologists define intraoperative hypotension?","volume":"19","author":"Nafiu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Paediatr Anaesth."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.64.6.1079","article-title":"The relationship of cardiac output and arterial pressure control","volume":"64","author":"Guyton","year":"1981","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cr.7290083","article-title":"The angiotensin II type 1 receptor and receptor-associated proteins","volume":"11","author":"Guo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cell Res"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.70.11.1345","article-title":"Effect of intravenous administration of lactated Ringer's solution or hetastarch for the treatment of isoflurane-induced hypotension in dogs","volume":"70","author":"Aarnes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B23","first-page":"99","article-title":"Effects of high-volume and rapid-fluid therapy on cardiovascular function and hematological values during isoflurane-induced hypotension in healthy dogs","volume":"76","author":"Valverde","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can J Vet Res."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2013","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1996.208.12.2013","article-title":"Effects of intravenous administration of fluids on packed cell volume, blood pressure, and total protein and blood glucose concentrations in healthy halothane-anesthetized dogs","volume":"208","author":"Gaynor","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2000.61.1273","article-title":"Effects of anesthesia, surgery, and intravenous administration of fluids on plasma antidiuretic hormone concentrations in healthy dogs","volume":"61","author":"Hauptman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1730","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.67.10.1730","article-title":"Effects of dobutamine, norepinephrine, and vasopressin on cardiovascular function in anesthetized neonatal foals with induced hypotension","volume":"67","author":"Valverde","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.73.6.908","article-title":"Cardiovascular and respiratory effects of incremental doses of dopamine and phenylephrine in the management of isoflurane-induced hypotension in cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy","volume":"73","author":"Wiese","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.67.9.1491","article-title":"Effects of increasing infusion rates of dopamine, dobutamine, epinephrine, and phenylephrine in healthy anesthetized cats","volume":"67","author":"Pascoe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2006.00304.x","article-title":"The cardiopulmonary effects of dobutamine and norpepinephrine in isoflurane-anesthetized foals","volume":"34","author":"Craig","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet Anaesth Analg."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-200612000-00008","article-title":"Survey of anesthesia-related mortality in France","volume":"105","author":"Lienhart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000001432","article-title":"Relationship between intraoperative hypotension, defined by either reduction from baseline or absolute thresholds, and acute kidney and myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery: a retrospective cohort analysis","volume":"126","author":"Salmasi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e318258fee7","article-title":"Effects of fluid resuscitation with synthetic colloids or crystalloids alone on shock reversal, fluid balance, and patient outcomes in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective sequential analysis","volume":"40","author":"Bayer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000000765","article-title":"Association of intraoperative hypotension with acute kidney injury after elective noncardiac surgery","volume":"123","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1111\/anae.14416","article-title":"The association of hypotension during non-cardiac surgery, before and after skin incision, with postoperative acute kidney injury: a retrospective cohort analysis","volume":"73","author":"Maheshwari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anaesthesia."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1213\/01.ANE.0000147519.82841.5E","article-title":"Anesthetic management and one-year mortality after noncardiac surgery","volume":"100","author":"Monk","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anesth Analg."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000157788.20591.23","article-title":"Increasing mean arterial pressure in patients with septic shock: effects on oxygen variables and renal function","volume":"33","author":"Bourgoin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2003.64.590","article-title":"Effects of acepromazine on renal function in anesthetized dogs","volume":"64","author":"Bostr\u00f6m","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03007869","article-title":"Cardio-respiratory effects of change of body position","volume":"30","author":"Coonan","year":"1983","journal-title":"Can Anaesth Soc J."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00586523","article-title":"Autoregulation of renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate and renin release in conscious dogs","volume":"410","author":"Kirchheim","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pfl\u00fcgers Arch."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-018-1967-3","article-title":"Vasoplegia treatments: the past, the present, and the future","volume":"22","author":"Levy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654708","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/654708","article-title":"Therapeutic strategies for high-dose vasopressor-dependent shock","volume":"2013","author":"Bassi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit Care Res Pract."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0907118","article-title":"Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock","volume":"362","author":"De Backer","year":"2010","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.0287","article-title":"The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3)","volume":"315","author":"Singer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Am Med Assoc."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2014.08.015","article-title":"The ATLS\u00ae classification of hypovolaemic shock: a well established teaching tool on the edge?","volume":"45","author":"Mutschler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1711S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.6.1711S","article-title":"Simultaneous determination of total body water and plasma volume in conscious dogs by the indicator dilution principle","volume":"132","author":"Wamberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Nutr."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-9572(88)90076-7","article-title":"Single hemorrhage: a clinically relevant canine model of hemorrhagic shock","volume":"16","author":"Carroll","year":"1988","journal-title":"Resuscitation."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199504000-00015","article-title":"A comparison of baroreflex sensitivity during isoflurane and desflurane anesthesia in humans","volume":"82","author":"Muzi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1097\/00000539-200111000-00012","article-title":"The recovery profile of baroreflex control of heart rate after isoflurane or sevoflurane anesthesia in humans","volume":"83","author":"Nagasaki","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anesth Analg."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aei092","article-title":"Baroreflex control of heart rate during and after propofol infusion in humans","volume":"94","author":"Sato","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2005.00273.x","article-title":"The effect of hypovolemia due to hemorrhage on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in the dog","volume":"33","author":"Mattson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet Anaesth Analg."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.77.3.280","article-title":"Changes in pulse pressure variation and plethysmographic variability index caused by hypotension-inducing hemorrhage followed by volume replacement in isoflurane-anesthetized dogs","volume":"77","author":"Klein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14853","article-title":"Effects of 6% tetrastarch and lactated Ringer's solution on extravascular lung water and markers of acute renal injury in hemorrhaged, isoflurane-anesthetized healthy dogs","volume":"32","author":"Diniz","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s0054080020063","article-title":"The comparative cardiovascular effects of sevoflurane with halothane and isoflurane","volume":"2","author":"Kazama","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Anesth."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000004343","article-title":"Reversal of vasodilatory shock: current perspectives on conventional, rescue, and emerging vasoactive agents for the treatment of shock","volume":"130","author":"Chow","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anesth Analg."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1998.tb02109.x","article-title":"Factors associated with survival in septicemic foals: 65 cases (1988-1995)","volume":"12","author":"Gayle","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Vet Inter Med."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2746\/0425164054406856","article-title":"Arterial lactate concentration, hospital survival, sepsis and SIRS in critically ill neonatal foals","volume":"37","author":"Corley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Equine Vet J."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12151","article-title":"Septic peritonitis from pyloric and non-pyloric gastrointestinal perforation: prognostic factors in 44 dogs and 11 cats","volume":"54","author":"Dayer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"P110","DOI":"10.1186\/cc13009","article-title":"Severe sepsis and septic shock survival in a clinical canine model","volume":"17","author":"Isola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit Care."},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/vec.12013","article-title":"Alterations in the hemostatic profiles of dogs with naturally occurring septic peritonitis","volume":"23","author":"Bentley","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Vet Emerg Crit Care."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1111\/vec.12234","article-title":"Plasma lactate concentrations in septic peritonitis: a retrospective study of 83 dogs (2007-2012)","volume":"25","author":"Cortellini","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Vet Emerg Crit Care."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12279","article-title":"Re-evaluation of the sepsis score in equine neonates","volume":"47","author":"Weber","year":"2015","journal-title":"Equine Vet J."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12542","article-title":"Acid base imbalances in ill neonatal foals and their association with survival","volume":"49","author":"Viu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Equine Vet J."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15087","article-title":"Evaluation of updated sepsis scoring systems and systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria and their association with sepsis in equine neonates","volume":"32","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00208","article-title":"Biomarker guided diagnosis of septic peritonitis in dogs","volume":"6","author":"Martiny","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.60.3.365","article-title":"Human recombinant monocyte chemotactic protein and other C-C chemokines bind and induce directional migration of dendritic cells in vitro","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Leukocyte Biol."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra002709","article-title":"The pathogenesis of vasodilatory shock","volume":"345","author":"Landry","year":"2001","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-010-2045-8","article-title":"Vascular hyporesponsiveness to vasopressors in septic shock: from bench to bedside","volume":"36","author":"Levy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2009.0277.x","article-title":"Association of blood lactate concentration and outcome in foals","volume":"23","author":"Wotman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2009.0419.x","article-title":"Sequential plasma lactate concentrations as prognostic indicators in adult equine emergencies","volume":"24","author":"Tennent-Brown","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-015-0896-7","article-title":"Hemodynamic consequences of severe lactic acidosis in shock states: from bench to bedside","volume":"19","author":"Kimmoun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit Care."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.1097\/00003246-200005000-00046","article-title":"Is prostacyclin responsible for producing the hyperdynamic response during early sepsis?","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002255","article-title":"Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016","volume":"45","author":"Rhodes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B73","first-page":"481","article-title":"Review of non-invasive blood pressure measurement in veterinary species. Part two: evaluation of the performance of non-invasive devices","volume":"61","author":"Skelding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can Vet J."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2004.12.022","article-title":"Regulation of cardiac contractile function by troponin I phosphorylation","volume":"66","author":"Layland","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cardiovasc Res."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2018.135","article-title":"Targeting G protein-coupled receptor signaling by blocking G proteins","volume":"17","author":"Campbell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Rev Drug Discovery."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2009.09.006","article-title":"Vasopressin: a review of therapeutic applications","volume":"24","author":"Holt","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Cardiothoracic Vasc Anesth."},{"key":"B77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1097\/01.CCM.0000206466.56669.BE","article-title":"Decreased vasopressin responsiveness in vasodilatory septic shock-like conditions","volume":"34","author":"Leone","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1007\/s001340050329","article-title":"Comparison of norepinephrine and dobutamine to epinephrine for hemodynamics, lactate metabolism, and gastric tonometric variables in septic shock: a prospective, randomized study","volume":"23","author":"Levy","year":"1997","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61344-0","article-title":"Norepinephrine plus dobutamine vs. epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomised trial","volume":"370","author":"Annane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-012-2769-8","article-title":"Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines committee including the pediatric subgroup. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012","volume":"41","author":"Dellinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2020.105455","article-title":"Sympathomimetics in veterinary species under anesthesia","volume":"258","author":"Skelding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.2841","article-title":"Association between US norepinephrine shortage and mortality among patients with septic shock","volume":"317","author":"Vail","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0610535","article-title":"Blunted pressor response to angiotensin and sympathomimetic amines in bile-duct ligated dogs","volume":"61","author":"Finberg","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin Sci."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.112.082313","article-title":"Differential phosphorylation, desensitization, and internalization of \u03b11A-adrenoceptors activated by norepinephrine and oxymetazoline","volume":"83","author":"Akinaga","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Pharmacol."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000001380","article-title":"A selective V1A receptor agonist, selepressin, is superior to arginine vasopressin and to norepinephrine in ovine septic shock","volume":"44","author":"He","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1177\/0310057X0903700212","article-title":"Outcome of patients receiving high dose vasopressor therapy: a retrospective cohort study","volume":"37","author":"Jenkins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anaesth Intensive Care."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1177\/0310057X1204000104","article-title":"Benefits and risks of using gelatin solution as a plasma expander for perioperative and critically ill patients: a meta-analysis","volume":"40","author":"Saw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anaesth Intensive Care."},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CD000567","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD000567.pub7","article-title":"Colloids vs. crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people","volume":"8","author":"Lewis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1007\/s001010050115","article-title":"Endocrine stress reaction, hemodynamics and recovery in total intravenous and inhalation anesthesia: Propofol vs. isoflurane","volume":"43","author":"Adams","year":"1994","journal-title":"Anaesthetist."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-200303000-00015","article-title":"Isoflurane but not mechanical ventilation promotes extravascular fluid accumulation during crystalloid volume loading","volume":"98","author":"Connolly","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anesthesiology."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e31819cedfd","article-title":"Crystalloid or colloid fluid loading and pulmonary permeability, edema, and injury in septic and nonseptic critically ill patients with hypovolemia","volume":"37","author":"van der Heijden","year":"2009","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI115315","article-title":"Glucocorticoids induce transcription and expression of the alpha 1B adrenergic receptor gene in DTT1 MF-2 smooth muscle cells","volume":"88","author":"Sakaue","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Clin Invest."},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1210\/endo-119-2-661","article-title":"Inhibition by hydrocortisone of prostacyclin synthesis by rat aorta and its reversal with RU486","volume":"119","author":"Jeremy","year":"1986","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-291X(88)80995-1","article-title":"Corticosteroids suppress cyclooxygenase messenger RNA levels and prostanoid synthesis in cultured vascular cells","volume":"157","author":"Bailey","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biochem Biophys Res Commun."},{"key":"B95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17023","DOI":"10.1038\/sigtrans.2017.23","article-title":"NF-\u03baB signaling in inflammation","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sig Transduct Target Ther."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10043","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.87.24.10043","article-title":"Glucocorticoids inhibit the expression of an inducible, but not the constitutive, nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial cells","volume":"87","author":"Radomski","year":"1990","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1186\/cc2374","article-title":"Clinical review: corticotherapy in sepsis","volume":"8","author":"Prigent","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit Care."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1704154","article-title":"Angiotensin II for the treatment of vasodilatory shock","volume":"377","author":"Khanna","year":"2017","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2005.04185.x","article-title":"Methylthioninium chloride: pharmacology and clinical applications with special emphasis on nitric oxide mediated vasodilatory shock during cardiopulmonary bypass","volume":"60","author":"Faber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anaesthesia."},{"key":"B100","first-page":"198","article-title":"Suppression by methylene blue of prostaglandin I2 in isolated dog renal arteries","volume":"254","author":"Okamura","year":"1990","journal-title":"J Pharmacol Exp Therap."},{"key":"B101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/08998280.2001.11927725","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine: a novel sedative-analgesic agent","volume":"14","author":"Gertler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent)."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e431","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e3182986248","article-title":"Clonidine and dexmedetomidine increase the pressor response to norepinephrine in experimental sepsis: a pilot study","volume":"41","author":"Geloen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e89","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000003520","article-title":"The effect of propofol and dexmedetomidine sedation on norepinephrine requirements in septic shock patients: a crossover trial","volume":"47","author":"Morelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit Care Med."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.621696\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,25]],"date-time":"2024-08-25T19:09:10Z","timestamp":1724612950000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.621696\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"references-count":103,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2021.621696"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.621696","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"article-number":"621696"}}