{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T19:55:22Z","timestamp":1789588522593,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643241600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The epidemiology of inflammatory diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) in dogs is largely unknown. We aimed to report the relative proportion of different causes of inflammatory disease affecting the CNS in dogs and identify predictors for infectious vs. immune-mediated conditions and predictors for the most common diseases affecting the brain and the spinal cord. This was a retrospective cohort study over a 10-year period in 2 referral institutions using multivariable and multinomial logistic regression for identification of risk factors. In total, 1,140 client-owned dogs diagnosed with inflammatory disease affecting the CNS were included. Fifteen different diagnoses were identified, with immune-mediated (83.6%) disease being more common than infectious conditions (16.4%). The most common immune-mediated conditions diagnosed were meningoencephalitis of unknown origin (47.5%) and steroid-responsive meningitis\u2013arteritis (30.7%), and the most common infectious conditions were discospondylitis (9.3%) and otogenic intracranial infection (2.2%). Older age (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, OR = 1.019, 95% CI: 1.014\u20131.024), higher body weight (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, OR = 1.049, 95% CI: 1.025\u20131.074), male sex (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.009, OR = 1.685, 95% CI: 1.141\u20132.488), longer duration of the clinical signs before presentation (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, OR = 1.011, 95% CI: 1.006\u20131.017), progressive nature of the clinical signs (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, OR = 2.295, 95% CI: 1.463\u20133.599), identification of a possibly associated preceding event (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.0012, OR = 1.93, 95% CI: 1.159\u20133.213), and hyperesthesia on presentation (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &amp;lt; 0.001, OR = 2.303, 95% CI: 1.528\u20133.473) were associated with a diagnosis of infectious diseases. Our data shows that immune-mediated diseases are more common than infectious conditions as a cause for inflammatory CNS disease in dogs. The risk factors for the most common diagnoses were identified from signalment, history, and findings of the physical and neurological examinations to give valuable information that can guide clinicians with their investigations.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T08:43:05Z","timestamp":1643272985000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Inflammatory Disease Affecting the Central Nervous System in Dogs: A Retrospective Study in England (2010\u20132019)"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Rita","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"De Decker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gemma","family":"Walmsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Butterfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas W.","family":"Maddox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1995.tb01089.x","article-title":"Diagnosis of inflammatory and infectious diseases of the central nervous system in dogs: a retrospective study","volume":"9","author":"Tipold","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(96)50109-9","article-title":"Encephalitis and meningitis","volume":"26","author":"Mu\u00f1ana","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2010.05.008","article-title":"Inflammatory diseases of the spine in small animals","volume":"40","author":"Tipold","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2002.tb02348.x","article-title":"Bacterial meningoencephalomyelitis in dogs: a retrospective study of 23 cases (1990-1999)","volume":"16","author":"Radaelli","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2017.08.010","article-title":"Fungal infections of the central nervous system in small animals: clinical features, diagnosis, and management","volume":"48","author":"Bentley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2008.03.006","article-title":"Emerging viral encephalitides in dogs and cats","volume":"38","author":"Njaa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.2009.00848.x","article-title":"An update on steroid responsive meningitis-arteritis","volume":"51","author":"Tipold","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2009.0337.x","article-title":"Steroid responsive meningitis-arteritis: a prospective study of potential disease markers, prednisolone treatment, and long-term outcome in 20 dogs (2006-2008)","volume":"23","author":"Lowrie","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12837","article-title":"Clinical presentation and magnetic resonance imaging findings in 11 dogs with eosinophilic meningoencephalitis of unknown aetiology","volume":"59","author":"Cardy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.2009.00823.x","article-title":"Idiopathic granulomatous and necrotising inflammatory disorders of the canine central nervous system: a review and future perspectives","volume":"51","author":"Talarico","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2014.07.009","article-title":"Perspectives on meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown origin","volume":"44","author":"Coates","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2016.05.002","article-title":"Pathological and immunological features of canine necrotising meningoencephalitis and granulomatous meningoencephalitis","volume":"213","author":"Uchida","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2017.00203","article-title":"Breed-Specific magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of necrotizing encephalitis in dogs","volume":"4","author":"Flegel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2008.0137.x","article-title":"Epidemiology of necrotizing meningoencephalitis in pug dogs","volume":"22","author":"Levine","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.1999.tb00888.x","article-title":"Computed tomography of necrotizing meningoencephalitis in 3 Yorkshire terriers","volume":"40","author":"Ducot\u00e9","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet Radiol Ultrasound."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2006.00137.x","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging and pathologic findings associated with necrotizing encephalitis in two Yorkshire terriers","volume":"47","author":"von Praun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet Radiol Ultrasound."},{"key":"B17","first-page":"141","article-title":"Generalized tremors in maltese: clinical findings in seven cases","volume":"29","author":"Bagley","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Am Anim Hosp Assoc."},{"key":"B18","first-page":"167","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and outcome after treatment of shaker dog syndrome in 90 dogs","volume":"4","author":"Hazell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Austra Vet Pract."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.2012.01252.x","article-title":"Idiopathic hypertrophic pachymeningitis in six dogs: MRI, CSF and histological findings, treatment and outcome","volume":"53","author":"Roynard","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2009.03.031","article-title":"Clinical findings and treatment of non-infectious meningoencephalomyelitis in dogs: a systematic review of 457 published cases from 1962 to 2008","volume":"184","author":"Granger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.12.007","article-title":"Clinical presentation, diagnostic findings, prognostic factors, treatment and outcome in dogs with meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown origin: a review","volume":"244","author":"Cornelis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2014.07.004","article-title":"Corticosteroid use in small animal neurology","volume":"44","author":"Jeffery","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1086\/509330","article-title":"Beyond viruses: clinical profiles and etiologies associated with encephalitis","volume":"43","author":"Glaser","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix319","article-title":"Epidemiology of meningitis and encephalitis in the United States, 2011-2014","volume":"65","author":"Hasbun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e7984","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000007984","article-title":"Acute versus subacute community-acquired meningitis: analysis of 611 patients","volume":"96","author":"Sulaiman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Medicine."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-009-0799-0","article-title":"Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: report of ten cases and comparison with viral encephalitis","volume":"28","author":"Gable","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2005.tb02726.x","article-title":"Polymerase chain reaction screening for DNA viruses in paraffin-embedded brains from dogs with necrotizing meningoencephalitis, necrotizing leukoencephalitis, and granulomatous meningoencephalitis","volume":"19","author":"Schatzberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2012.00954.x","article-title":"Broadly reactive polymerase chain reaction for pathogen detection in canine granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis and necrotizing meningoencephalitis","volume":"26","author":"Barber","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14877","article-title":"Metagenomic investigation of idiopathic meningoencephalomyelitis in dogs","volume":"32","author":"Hoon-Hanks","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-009-5058-x","article-title":"Long-term outcome of acute and subacute myelopathies","volume":"256","author":"Debette","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Neurol."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncl.2012.09.008","article-title":"Transverse myelitis","volume":"31","author":"Beh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurol Clin."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.12.018","article-title":"Determination of immunoglobulin A concentrations in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of dogs: an estimation of its diagnostic value in canine steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis","volume":"191","author":"Maiolini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12360","article-title":"The impact of demographic, social, and environmental factors on the development of steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis (SRMA) in the United Kingdom","volume":"28","author":"Rose","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15543","article-title":"Clinical characteristics, breed differences, and quality of life in North American dogs with acute steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis","volume":"33","author":"Lau","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12418","article-title":"Relapses in dogs with steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis","volume":"57","author":"Biedermann","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.5326\/15473317-36-1-81","article-title":"Contrast radiographic findings in canine bacterial discospondylitis: a multicenter, retrospective study of 27 cases","volume":"36","author":"Davis","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Am Anim Hosp Assoc."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.156.3.78","article-title":"Treatment of 10 dogs with discospondylitis by fluoroscopy-guided percutaneous discectomy","volume":"156","author":"Kinzel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet Rec."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02910.x","article-title":"Clinical signs, magnetic resonance imaging features, and outcome after surgical and medical treatment of otogenic intracranial infection in 11 cats and 4 dogs","volume":"20","author":"Sturges","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2010.01756.x","article-title":"Magnetic resonance imaging features of discospondylitis in dogs","volume":"52","author":"Carrera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet Radiol Ultrasound."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.158.25.858","article-title":"Brain and spinal cord haemorrhages associated with Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in four dogs","volume":"158","author":"Wessmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet Rec."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870802000103","article-title":"Pathological findings in dogs naturally infected with Angiostrongylus vasorum in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada","volume":"20","author":"Bourque","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.159.4.110","article-title":"Characteristics of magnetic resonance images of granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis in 11 dogs","volume":"159","author":"Cherubini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet Rec."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]],"date-time":"2022-01-27T08:43:09Z","timestamp":1643272989000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"references-count":42,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,27]]},"article-number":"819945"}}