{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:18:24Z","timestamp":1772252304081,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human monkeypox, caused by monkeypox virus, has spread unprecedentedly to more than 100 countries since May 2022. Here we summarized the epidemiology of monkeypox through a literature review and elucidated the risks and elimination strategies of this outbreak mainly based on the summarized epidemiology. We demonstrated that monkeypox virus became more contagious and less virulent in 2022, which could result from the fact that the virus entered a special transmission network favoring close contacts (i.e., sexual behaviors of men who have sex with men outside Africa) and the possibility that the virus accumulated a few adaptive mutations. We gave the reasons to investigate whether cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs are susceptible to monkeypox virus and whether infection with monkeypox virus could be latent in some primates. We listed six potential scenarios for the future of the outbreak (e.g., the outbreak could lead to endemicity outside Africa with increased transmissibility or virulence). We also listed multiple factors aiding or impeding the elimination of the outbreak. We showed that the control measures strengthened worldwide after the World Health Organization declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) could eliminate the outbreak in 2022. We clarified eight strategies, i.e., publicity and education, case isolation, vaccine stockpiling, risk-based vaccination or ring vaccination, importation quarantine, international collaboration, and laboratory management, for the elimination of the outbreak.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1064766","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T02:26:10Z","timestamp":1669775170000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Epidemiology-based analysis of the risks and elimination strategies of the monkeypox outbreak in 2022"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Ji-Ming","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rui-Xu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huan-Yu","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng-Meng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu-Fei","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ming-Hui","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guo-Hui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Su-Mei","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gui-Hong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ji-Wang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Monkeypox2022"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1699-0463.1959.tb00328.x","article-title":"A pox-like disease in cynomolgus monkeys","volume":"46","author":"von Magnus","year":"1959","journal-title":"Acta Path Microbiol Scand."},{"key":"B3","unstructured":"Monkeypox2022"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01436-2","article-title":"Clinical presentation and virological assessment of confirmed human monkeypox virus cases in Spain: a prospective observational cohort study","volume":"400","author":"Tarin-Vicente","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-022-01421-8","article-title":"Monkeypox goes global: why scientists are on alert","volume":"606","author":"Kozlov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111257","article-title":"Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution","volume":"12","author":"Alakunle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B7","unstructured":"Taxonomy"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0010141","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Bunge","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2704.203569","article-title":"Reemergence of human monkeypox and declining population immunity in the context of urbanization, Nigeria, 2017-2020","volume":"27","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-022-01610-x","article-title":"Environmental drivers of monkeypox transmission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","volume":"19","author":"Mandja","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecohealth"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1086\/425039","article-title":"Human monkeypox infection: a family cluster in the midwestern United States","volume":"190","author":"Sejvar","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27968","article-title":"Monkeypox virus: A zoonosis of concern","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"B13","first-page":"13","article-title":"Susceptibility of some rodent species to monkeypox virus, and course of the infection","volume":"53","author":"Marennikova","year":"1976","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ."},{"key":"B14","first-page":"115","article-title":"The role of squirrels in sustaining monkeypox virus transmission","volume":"39","author":"Khodakevich","year":"1987","journal-title":"Trop Geogr Med."},{"key":"B15","first-page":"425","article-title":"Electron-microscopical observations on the development of vaccinia, cowpox and monkeypox viruses in pig skin","volume":"237","author":"Soekawa","year":"1977","journal-title":"Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig A."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.27902","article-title":"Re-emerging human monkeypox: a major public-health debacle","author":"Saxena","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Med Virol"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2288","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-02004-w","article-title":"Retrospective detection of asymptomatic monkeypox virus infections among male sexual health clinic attendees in Belgium","volume":"28","author":"De Baetselier","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106762","article-title":"Should not airborne transmission be ignored in the 2022 monkeypox outbreak?","volume":"104","author":"Saied","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Surg."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9105","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00162-12","article-title":"Lethal monkeypox virus infection of CAST\/EiJ mice Is associated with a deficient gamma interferon response","volume":"86","author":"Earl","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1104.040907","article-title":"Experimental infection of prairie dogs with monkeypox virus","volume":"11","author":"Xiao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25920","article-title":"Potential of live pathogen vaccines for defeating the COVID-19 pandemic: history and mechanism","volume":"92","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Med Virol."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020388","article-title":"An update of orthopoxvirus molecular evolution","volume":"14","author":"Babkin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2407","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14651","article-title":"Is monkeypox virus older than we think?","volume":"69","author":"Saied","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.09.07.506685","article-title":"Origins of monkeypox viruses and their strains circulating in 2022","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"bioRxiv [Preprint]."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msy096","article-title":"MEGA X molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms","volume":"35","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-022-02178-w","article-title":"How does monkeypox spread? What scientists know","volume":"608","author":"Kozlov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00513-8","article-title":"Monkeypox virus isolation from a semen sample collected in the early phase of infection in a patient with prolonged seminal viral shedding","volume":"22","author":"Lapa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1038\/1951128a0","article-title":"Monkey pox disease in irradiated cynomologous monkeys","volume":"195","author":"McConnell","year":"1962","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B29","unstructured":"Monkeypox2022"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2078","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2810.221126","article-title":"Early estimates of monkeypox incubation period, generation time, and reproduction number, Italy, May-June 2022","volume":"28","author":"Guzzetta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1569","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01907-y","article-title":"Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus","volume":"28","author":"Isidro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106745","article-title":"Monkeypox: an extra burden on global health","volume":"104","author":"Saied","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Surg."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1126\/science.add4507","article-title":"Heavy-tailed sexual contact networks and monkeypox epidemiology in the global outbreak, 2022","volume":"377","author":"Endo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B34","first-page":"747","article-title":"Monkeypox virus: ecology and public health significance","volume":"66","author":"Khodakevich","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7805","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03481-12","article-title":"Assessment of the protective effect of Imvamune and Acam2000 vaccines against aerosolized monkeypox virus in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"87","author":"Hatch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)01487-8","article-title":"Evidence of human-to-dog transmission of monkeypox virus","volume":"400","author":"Seang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1111\/evo.14507","article-title":"Host phenology can drive the evolution of intermediate virulence strategies in some obligate-killer parasites","volume":"76","author":"MacDonald","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evolution."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2013.10.014","article-title":"Poxviruses and the evolution of host range and virulence","volume":"21","author":"Haller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199808203390811","article-title":"Poxvirus dilemmas\u2013monkeypox, smallpox, and biologic terrorism","volume":"339","author":"Breman","year":"1998","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B40","unstructured":"Strengthening Global Systems to Prevent and Respond to High-consequence Biological Threats2022"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106873","article-title":"Ring vaccination for monkeypox containment: strategic implementation and challenges","volume":"105","author":"Choudhary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Surg."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"o1971","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.o1971","article-title":"Monkeypox: concerns mount over vaccine inequity","volume":"378","author":"Taylor","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-022-01004-9","article-title":"Combating the global spread of poverty-related monkeypox outbreaks and beyond","volume":"11","author":"Tambo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.1064766\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]],"date-time":"2022-11-30T02:26:16Z","timestamp":1669775176000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.1064766\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"references-count":43,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2022.1064766"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.1064766","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202210.0022.v2","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202210.0022.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,30]]},"article-number":"1064766"}}