{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T01:20:41Z","timestamp":1789435241617,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Many pathogenic viruses infect camels, generally regarded as especially hardy livestock because of their ability to thrive in harsh and arid conditions. Transmission of these viruses has been facilitated by the commercialization of camel milk and meat and their byproducts, and vaccines are needed to prevent viruses from spreading. There is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of viral immunizations in camels, even though numerous studies have looked into the topic. More research is needed to create effective vaccines and treatments for camels. Because Camels are carriers of coronavirus, capable of producing a powerful immune response to recurrent coronavirus infections. As a result, camels may be a suitable model for viral vaccine trials since vaccines are simple to create and can prevent viral infection transfer from animals to humans. In this review, we present available data on the diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventative strategies for the following viral diseases in camels, most of which result in significant economic loss: camelpox, Rift Valley fever, peste des petits ruminants, bovine viral diarrhea, bluetongue, rotavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and COVID-19. Although suitable vaccines have been developed for controlling viral infections and perhaps interrupting the transmission of the virus from the affected animals to blood-feeding vectors, there is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of viral immunizations in camels and more research is needed. Recent therapeutic trials that include specific antivirals or supportive care have helped manage viral infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.915475","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]],"date-time":"2022-08-11T04:34:22Z","timestamp":1660192462000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Camel viral diseases: Current diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive strategies"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Mahmoud","family":"Kandeel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah I. A.","family":"Al-Mubarak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"86","article-title":"Productive performance and productivity of dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius)","volume":"35","author":"Schwartz","year":"1992","journal-title":"Anim Res Dev."},{"key":"B2","first-page":"74","article-title":"The Raika dromedary breeders of Rajasthan: a pastoral system in crisis","volume":"1992","author":"K\u00f6hler-Rollefson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Nomad People."},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"The Two-Humped Camel (Camelus bactrianus). World Animal Review (FAO) Revue Mondiale de Zootechnie (FAO) Revista Mundial de Zootecnia (FAO)","author":"Lensch","year":"1999"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1010580416485","article-title":"A study on the productivity and diseases of camels in eastern Ethiopia","volume":"33","author":"Tefera","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B5","volume-title":"Minor Use Animal Drug Program\/NRSP-7 Fall Meeting 2010","author":"MacFarlane","year":"2010"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.04.010","article-title":"Zoonotic cases of camelpox infection in India","volume":"152","author":"Bera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2309.170342","article-title":"Serologic evidence for influenza C and D virus among ruminants and camelids, Africa, 1991\u20132015","volume":"23","author":"Salem","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2506.181158","article-title":"Influenza D virus infection in dromedary camels, Ethiopia","volume":"25","author":"Murakami","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B9","first-page":"1003","article-title":"Family flaviviridae","volume":"9","author":"Simmonds","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virus Taxonomy."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.12.015","article-title":"Serological and molecular evidence for natural infection of Bactrian camels with multiple subgenotypes of bovine viral diarrhea virus in Western China","volume":"163","author":"Gao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-013-0145-0","article-title":"Camelpox, an emerging orthopox viral disease","volume":"24","author":"Balamurugan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J Virol."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-010-9560-z","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of Indian isolates of camel pox virus","volume":"42","author":"Bhanuprakash","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.09.003","article-title":"Camelpox virus","volume":"92","author":"Duraffour","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870902100209","article-title":"A polymerase chain reaction strategy for the diagnosis of camelpox","volume":"21","author":"Balamurugan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Vet Diagnost Investig."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"721023","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.721023","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a live attenuated egg-based camelpox vaccine","volume":"8","author":"Zhugunissov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.22192\/ijarbs.2018.05.09.006","article-title":"Review on camel pox: an economically overwhelming disease of pastorals","volume":"5","author":"Tadesse","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Adv Res Biol Sci."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.33.3.2321","article-title":"Development and evaluation of a live attenuated camelpox vaccine from a local field isolate of the virus","volume":"33","author":"Abdellatif","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev Sci Tech."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.14737\/journal.aavs\/2014\/2.4.239.241","article-title":"Therapeutic management of camel pox\u2013a case report","volume":"2","author":"Kachhawaha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv Anim Vet Sci."},{"key":"B19","first-page":"447","article-title":"Documentation of ethnoveterinary remedies of camel diseases in rajasthan, India","author":"Gupta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian J Tradit Knowl."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00008-6","article-title":"Cidofovir in the treatment of poxvirus infections","volume":"55","author":"De Clercq","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4410","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00838-07","article-title":"Activities of several classes of acyclic nucleoside phosphonates against camelpox virus replication in different cell culture models","volume":"51","author":"Duraffour","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-79389-0_3","volume-title":"Camel Contagious Ecthyma. Infectious Diseases of Dromedary Camels.","author":"Khalafalla","year":"2021"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.4314\/ovj.v8i2.16","article-title":"First report of camel contagious ecthyma in Nigeria","volume":"8","author":"Adedeji","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Vet J."},{"key":"B24","first-page":"122","article-title":"Camel contagious ecthyma (pustular dermatitis)","volume":"28","author":"Dashtseren","year":"1984","journal-title":"Acta Virol."},{"key":"B25","first-page":"453","article-title":"Therapeutic management of early acute camel contagious ecthyma (cce) in a camel herd","volume":"20","author":"Ranjan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intas Polivet."},{"key":"B26","volume-title":"Emerging Infectious Diseases in Camelids. Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases of Livestock","author":"Khalafalla","year":"2017"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-016-0065-6","article-title":"Survey of rift valley fever and associated risk factors among the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Sudan","volume":"69","author":"Abdallah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ir Vet J."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0289","article-title":"Prediction, assessment of the Rift Valley fever activity in East and Southern Africa 2006\u20132008 and possible vector control strategies","volume":"83","author":"Anyamba","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7262","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00135-15","article-title":"Rift Valley fever virus MP-12 vaccine is fully attenuated by a combination of partial attenuations in the S, M, and L segments","volume":"89","author":"Ikegami","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines5030029","article-title":"Current status of Rift Valley fever vaccine development","volume":"5","author":"Faburay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vaccines."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10092","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10010092","article-title":"Tilorone-dihydrochloride protects against Rift Valley fever virus infection and disease in the mouse model","volume":"10","author":"Johnson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.01.016","article-title":"Favipiravir (T-705) protects against peracute Rift Valley fever virus infection and reduces delayed-onset neurologic disease observed with ribavirin treatment","volume":"104","author":"Scharton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(86)90024-0","article-title":"Prophylaxis of Rift Valley fever with antiviral drugs, immune serum, an interferon inducer, and a macrophage activator","volume":"6","author":"Peters","year":"1986","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S815","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/11.Supplement_4.S815","article-title":"Prevention of Rift Valley fever in rhesus monkeys with interferon-alpha","volume":"11","author":"Morrill","year":"1989","journal-title":"Rev Infect Dis"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33198","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.356535","article-title":"Curcumin inhibits Rift Valley fever virus replication in human cells","volume":"287","author":"Narayanan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Biol Chem."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl-2017-0060","article-title":"Recent advances in the development of antiviral therapeutics for Rift Valley fever virus infection","volume":"12","author":"Atkins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Future Virol."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-79389-0","volume-title":"Peste Des Petits Ruminants (PPR). Infectious Diseases of Dromedary Camels","author":"Khalafalla","year":"2021"},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12052","article-title":"Role of wild small ruminants in the epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants","volume":"61","author":"Munir","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis."},{"key":"B39","volume-title":"Molecular Characterization Of Peste Des Petits Ruminants In Camels, Sheep And Goats In Northern Kenya","author":"Omani","year":"2018"},{"key":"B40","volume-title":"The Immune Response to Live, Attenuated Peste Des Petits Ruminants Virus Vaccines","author":"Hodgson","year":"2020"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-013-0188-2","article-title":"Diagnosis and control of peste des petits ruminants: a comprehensive review","volume":"25","author":"Balamurugan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virusdisease."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.3329\/ajmbr.v1i2.25616","article-title":"Management of an outbreak of peste des petits ruminants with antibiotic combined hyperimmune serum therapy","volume":"1","author":"Yousuf","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J Medical Biol Res."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.12980\/apjtd.7.2017D7-234","article-title":"Therapeutic response of West African dwarf goats infected with peste des petits ruminants whose oral lesions were treated with oxytetracycline long acting and gentian violet topical spray","volume":"7","author":"Ugochukwu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asian Pacific J Trop Dis."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.17582\/journal.pjz\/20200704060712","article-title":"Antiviral potential of ivermectin against peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV)","volume":"53","author":"Afzal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pak J Zool."},{"key":"B45","volume-title":"Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus: Evaluation of Persistent Infections, Acute Transmission, and Vaccination Protection in Alpacas","author":"Byers","year":"2009"},{"key":"B46","volume-title":"Camelidae. Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals","author":"Agnew","year":"2018"},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2010.03.018","article-title":"Bovine viral diarrhea infections in new world camelids\u2014a review","volume":"91","author":"van Amstel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Small Ruminant Res."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2012.06.004","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of bovine viral diarrhea virus","volume":"41","author":"Dubovi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biologicals."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2009.03.005","article-title":"Viral diseases of new world camelids","volume":"25","author":"Kapil","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet Clin."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.10.026","article-title":"Evaluation of a commercial bovine viral diarrhea virus vaccine in nonpregnant female alpacas (Vicugna pacos)","volume":"28","author":"Byers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1690","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15816","article-title":"Bovine viral diarrhea virus: An updated American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine consensus statement with focus on virus biology, hosts, immunosuppression, and vaccination","volume":"34","author":"Walz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Vet Internal Med."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.3844\/ajvsp.2012.9-17","article-title":"Bovine Viral diarrhea-an emerging disease in camelids a review","volume":"1","author":"Wernery","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Virol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.60.1329","article-title":"Anti-viral effect of interferon-\u03b1 on bovine viral diarrhea virus","volume":"60","author":"Sentsui","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Vet Medical Sci."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2016.05.018","article-title":"A novel systems pharmacology platform to dissect action mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicines for bovine viral diarrhea disease","volume":"94","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur J Pharm Sci."},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-021-00186-2","article-title":"Sero-epidemiological survey of bluetongue disease in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan","volume":"74","author":"Elmahi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ir Vet J."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2008.06.002","article-title":"Bluetongue in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin: history of occurrence prior to 2006","volume":"87","author":"Mellor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med."},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2009.11.007","article-title":"Financial consequences of the Dutch bluetongue serotype 8 epidemics of 2006 and 2007","volume":"93","author":"Velthuis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med."},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.161.22.764","article-title":"Lethal bluetongue virus infection in an alpaca","volume":"161","author":"Henrich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1177\/104063871002200129","article-title":"Fatal bluetongue virus infection in an alpaca (Vicugna pacos) in California","volume":"22","author":"Ortega","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vet Diagnost Investig."},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1504.081514","article-title":"Lethal bluetongue virus serotype 1 infection in llamas","volume":"15","author":"Meyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.2147\/VMRR.S163804","article-title":"Diagnosing bluetongue virus in domestic ruminants: current perspectives","volume":"10","author":"Rojas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet Med."},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.10.027","article-title":"Heterologous prime boost vaccination with DNA and recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara protects IFNAR (\u2013\/\u2013) mice against lethal bluetongue infection","volume":"28","author":"Calvo-Pinilla","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vaccine."},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.03.010","article-title":"Microspheres-prime\/rMVA-boost vaccination enhances humoral and cellular immune response in IFNAR (\u2013\/\u2013) mice conferring protection against serotypes 1 and 4 of bluetongue virus","volume":"142","author":"Mar\u00edn-L\u00f3pez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8030346","article-title":"Heterologous combination of ChAdOx1 and MVA vectors expressing protein NS1 as vaccination strategy to induce durable and cross-protective CD8+ T cell immunity to bluetongue virus","volume":"8","author":"Utrilla-Trigo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vaccines."},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2010.0538.x","article-title":"Humoral response to 2 inactivated bluetongue virus serotype-8 vaccines in South American Camelids","volume":"24","author":"Zanolari","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vet Internal Medi."},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1017\/s0022172400040614","article-title":"Sensitivity of bluetongue virus to lipid solvents, trypsin and pH changes and its serological relationship to arboviruses","volume":"64","author":"Svehag","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Hygiene."},{"key":"B67","first-page":"635","article-title":"Effect of levamisole administration on bluetongue vaccination in sheep","volume":"40","author":"Stelletta","year":"2004","journal-title":"Veterinaria Italiana."},{"key":"B68","first-page":"593","article-title":"Influence of tarantula cubensis extract on the treatment of the oral Lesions in Cattle With Bluetongue Disease","volume":"16","author":"Albay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1814","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211721","article-title":"Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia","volume":"367","author":"Zaki","year":"2012","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20334","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.17.49.20334-en","article-title":"Assays for laboratory confirmation of novel human coronavirus (hCoV-EMC) infections","volume":"17","author":"Corman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance."},{"key":"B71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20290","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.17.40.20290-en","article-title":"Severe respiratory illness caused by a novel coronavirus, in a patient transferred to the United Kingdom from the Middle East, September 2012","volume":"17","author":"Bermingham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance."},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2499","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1401505","article-title":"Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus","volume":"370","author":"Azhar","year":"2014","journal-title":"N Engl J Med."},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3362","article-title":"Treatment with interferon-\u03b12b and ribavirin improves outcome in MERS-CoV\u2013infected rhesus macaques","volume":"19","author":"Falzarano","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat Med."},{"key":"B74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6771","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1922083117","article-title":"Prophylactic and therapeutic remdesivir (GS-5734) treatment in the rhesus macaque model of MERS-CoV infection","volume":"117","author":"de Wit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Nat Acad Sci USA."},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1904","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv392","article-title":"Treatment with lopinavir\/ritonavir or interferon-\u03b21b improves outcome of MERS-CoV infection in a nonhuman primate model of common marmoset","volume":"212","author":"Chan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.685161","article-title":"Discovery of new potent anti-MERS CoV fusion inhibitors","volume":"12","author":"Kandeel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol."},{"key":"B77","author":"Mahmoud Kandeel Elsayed","year":"2021","journal-title":"MERS-CoV Inhibitor Peptides. United States Patent Office, Patent no US10975126B1"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2019.202","article-title":"Small molecule inhibitors of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus fusion by targeting cavities on heptad repeat trimers","volume":"28","author":"Kandeel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomol Therapeut"},{"key":"B79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.2991\/dsahmj.k.210921.001","article-title":"Virtual screening and inhibition of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus replication by targeting papain-like protease","volume":"3","author":"Kandeel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sulaiman Al Habib Medical J."},{"key":"B80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2019.06.012","article-title":"Systematic Review of therapeutic agents for the treatment of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)","volume":"30","author":"Momattin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis."},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2013.12.003","article-title":"Ribavirin and interferon therapy in patients infected with the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: an observational study","volume":"20","author":"Al-Tawfiq","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis."},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP3002","article-title":"Combination therapy with lopinavir\/ritonavir, ribavirin and interferon-\u03b1 for Middle East respiratory syndrome","volume":"21","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antivir Ther."},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1492-4","article-title":"Treatment outcomes for patients with Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS CoV) infection at a coronavirus referral center in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia","volume":"16","author":"Al Ghamdi","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis."},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2008-3","article-title":"A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China","volume":"579","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2006.140402","article-title":"Human infection with MERS coronavirus after exposure to infected camels, Saudi Arabia, 2013","volume":"20","author":"Memish","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis."},{"key":"B86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1038\/363446a0","article-title":"Naturally occurring antibodies devoid of light chains","volume":"363","author":"Hamers-Casterman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature."},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145785","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.145785","article-title":"Dromedary camels as a natural source of neutralizing nanobodies against SARS-CoV-2","volume":"6","author":"Chouchane","year":"2021","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"B88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.10212","article-title":"Efficient tumor targeting by single-domain antibody fragments of camels","volume":"98","author":"Cortez-Retamozo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Cancer."},{"key":"B89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.4103\/1995-7645.282561","article-title":"Immunized camels and COVID-19","volume":"13","author":"Hasson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian Pac J Trop Med."},{"key":"B90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12937-015-0010-7","article-title":"Survival and digestibility of orally-administered immunoglobulin preparations containing IgG through the gastrointestinal tract in humans","volume":"14","author":"Jasion","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr J."},{"key":"B91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.60","article-title":"A potent neutralizing nanobody against SARS-CoV-2 with inhaled delivery potential","volume":"2020","author":"Gai","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79036-0","article-title":"High affinity nanobodies block SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor binding domain interaction with human angiotensin converting enzyme","volume":"2020","author":"Esparza","year":"2020","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"key":"B93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-014-0203-2","article-title":"Rotavirus strains in neglected animal species including lambs, goats and camelids","volume":"25","author":"Papp","year":"2014","journal-title":"VirusDisease."},{"key":"B94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2013.10.002","article-title":"Novel NSP1 genotype characterised in an African camel G8P[11] rotavirus strain","volume":"21","author":"Jere","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol."},{"key":"B95","first-page":"393","article-title":"Epidemiology of camel calf diarrhoea in Sudan: seroprevalence of camel rotavirus infection","volume":"4","author":"Ali","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Anim Vet Adv."},{"key":"B96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.56808\/2985-1130.2847","article-title":"Group A rotavirus and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis associated with diarrhea in dromedary camels in Eastern province, Saudi Arabia","volume":"47","author":"El-Sabagh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thai J Vet Med."},{"key":"B97","first-page":"477","article-title":"Detection and isolation of group A rotavirus from camel calves in Sudan","volume":"78","author":"Ali","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet Arhiv."},{"key":"B98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S98","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/174.Supplement_1.S98","article-title":"Group A rotavirus veterinary vaccines","volume":"174","author":"Saif","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"B99","first-page":"35","article-title":"Camel milk and its unique anti-diarrheal properties","volume":"15","author":"Yagil","year":"2013","journal-title":"Isr Med Assoc J."},{"key":"B100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-013-0333-5","article-title":"Treatment and prevention of rotavirus infection in children","volume":"15","author":"Dennehy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr Infect Dis Rep."},{"key":"B101","first-page":"1","article-title":"Review of infectious diseases of the camel","volume":"75","author":"Abbas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Veterinary Bulletin."},{"key":"B102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2021.100340","article-title":"Risk factors for Rift Valley fever virus seropositivity in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) and pastoralist knowledge and practices in Northern Nigeria","volume":"13","author":"Adamu","year":"2021","journal-title":"One Health."},{"key":"B103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0009275","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009275","article-title":"Serological evidence of single and mixed infections of Rift Valley fever virus, Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetii in dromedary camels in Kenya","volume":"15","author":"Muturi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"B104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-021-02636-z","article-title":"Sero-surveillance of emerging viral diseases in camels and cattle in Nouakchott, Mauritania: an abattoir study","volume":"53","author":"Cosseddu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e07932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e07932","article-title":"Risk based serological survey of Rift Valley fever in Tunisia (2017\u20132018)","volume":"7","author":"Kalthoum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon."},{"key":"B106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-021-02956-0","article-title":"Survey of antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus and associated risk factors in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) slaughtered in Maiduguri abattoir, Borno State, Nigeria","volume":"53","author":"Musa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.04.022","article-title":"Recovery and molecular characterization of live Camelpox virus from skin 12 months after onset of clinical signs reveals possible mechanism of virus persistence in herds","volume":"159","author":"Yousif","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol."},{"key":"B108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2016.2070","article-title":"Human and dromedary camel infection with camelpox virus in Eastern Sudan","volume":"17","author":"Khalafalla","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"B109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2017.03.011","article-title":"Molecular characterization of camelpox virus isolates from Bikaner, India: evidence of its endemicity","volume":"171","author":"Dahiya","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"B110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1940","DOI":"10.3390\/v13101940","article-title":"Outbreak of a systemic form of camelpox in a dromedary herd (Camelus dromedarius) in the United Arab Emirates","volume":"13","author":"Joseph","year":"2021","journal-title":"Viruses."},{"key":"B111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.17582\/journal.aavs\/2019\/7.s2.12.18","article-title":"Virological and molecular studies on peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) in small ruminants and camel in Egypt between 2017 and 2018","volume":"7","author":"Nafea","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv Anim Vet Sci."},{"key":"B112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2019.07.004","article-title":"Experimental infection of dromedary camels with virulent virus of Peste des Petits Ruminants","volume":"235","author":"Fakri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol."},{"key":"B113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-021-02746-8","article-title":"Serological evidence of bovine viral diarrhea virus and peste des petits ruminants virus infection in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) in Shanxi Province, northern China","volume":"53","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B114","volume-title":"Detection of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Antigen in Pneumonic Lungs from Camels at Al Sahafa Slaughterhouse, Khartoum State","author":"Ali","year":"2021"},{"key":"B115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.2147\/VMRR.S305198","article-title":"Seroprevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus in local Borana cattle breed and camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Ethiopia","volume":"12","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet Med."},{"key":"B116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-021-03030-5","article-title":"BHV-1 and BLV antibodies in dromedary camels of Turkey kept without and with ruminants","volume":"54","author":"Ataseven","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod."},{"key":"B117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2018.1331-1337","article-title":"Epidemiological surveillance of bovine viral diarrhea and rift valley fever infections in camel","volume":"11","author":"El Bahgy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet World."},{"key":"B118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6613217","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6613217","article-title":"A survey of bluetongue infection and associated risk factors among the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Gadarif State, Eastern Sudan","volume":"2021","author":"Abraheem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet Med Int"},{"key":"B119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.5455\/vetworld.2012.389-393","article-title":"High seroprevalence of bluetongue virus antibodies in Sheep, Goats, Cattle and Camel in different districts of Saudi Arabia","volume":"5","author":"Yousef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"key":"B120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1007\/s12250-018-0051-0","article-title":"Countrywide survey for MERS-coronavirus antibodies in dromedaries and humans in Pakistan","volume":"33","author":"Zohaib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virologica Sinica."},{"key":"B121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e00898","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00898-19","article-title":"Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus antibodies in bactrian and hybrid camels from Dubai","volume":"5","author":"Lau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Msphere."},{"key":"B122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301ra132","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aac7462","article-title":"A synthetic consensus anti\u2013spike protein DNA vaccine induces protective immunity against Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in nonhuman primates","volume":"7","author":"Muthumani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"key":"B123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1283","article-title":"An orthopoxvirus-based vaccine reduces virus excretion after MERS-CoV infection in dromedary camels","volume":"351","author":"Haagmans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science."},{"key":"B124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20617","article-title":"Chimpanzee adenovirus vaccine provides multispecies protection against Rift Valley fever","volume":"6","author":"Warimwe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"key":"B125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-016-0775-8","article-title":"Safety and immunogenecity of a live attenuated Rift Valley fever vaccine (CL13T) in camels","volume":"12","author":"Daouam","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res."},{"key":"B126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1177\/10406387211015294","article-title":"Vaccination with Rift Valley fever virus live attenuated vaccine strain Smithburn caused meningoencephalitis in alpacas","volume":"33","author":"Anthony","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Vet Diagnost Investig."},{"key":"B127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.77.2.1571-1577.2003","article-title":"Development of a dual recombinant vaccine to protect small ruminants against peste-des-petits-ruminants virus and capripoxvirus infections","volume":"77","author":"Berhe","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Virol."},{"key":"B128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.7774\/cevr.2022.11.1.30","article-title":"Preparation and field study of combined vaccine against Clostridium perfringens type A and bovine viral diarrhea virus in camels","volume":"11","author":"Elhelw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Exp Vaccine Res."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.915475\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,25]],"date-time":"2023-11-25T09:11:19Z","timestamp":1700903479000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.915475\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"references-count":128,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2022.915475"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.915475","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,11]]},"article-number":"915475"}}