{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T16:16:03Z","timestamp":1788452163682,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Treatment of craniomaxillofacial (CMF) trauma in dogs often requires a multidisciplinary approach and a thorough understanding of the CMF anatomical structures involved. This retrospective study aimed to utilize computed tomography (CT) studies of immature dogs evaluated for CMF trauma and to describe common fracture locations, treatment modalities, and complications, as well as the fracture healing outcomes. The medical records and CT studies of 94 dogs under 1 year of age over a 13-year period were evaluated. The skeletal location of CMF fractures, as well as the severity of displacement and fragmentation of each fracture, was recorded. Case demographic data and trauma etiology were also recorded. Animal bites accounted for the majority of trauma (71.0%). The most likely bone or region to be fractured was the maxillary bones, followed by the molar region of the mandibles. Up to 37 bones or specific regions were fractured in any given patient, with an average of 8.8 \u00b1 3.1 fractured bones or regions per dog. Rostral mandibular trauma was associated with intra-articular fractures of the temporomandibular joint (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.016). Patients sustained concomitant injuries in 32% of the cases. Muzzle therapy was the main treatment performed for most dogs (53.2%), followed by soft tissue closure (47.9%) and selective dental extractions (27.6%). Healing complications were recorded in 71.6% of the dogs, with malocclusion being the most reported complication (55.2%), and associated with dentate mandibular jaw fractures (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.05). The average number of complications per dog was 2.4. No statistically significant association was found between treatment modality and healing outcome. There was a positive correlation between the severity of fracture fragmentation and displacement and a negative healing outcome (all rho &amp;gt;0.7). Further treatment was required in 55.6% of the dogs. Additional dental extractions were performed in 77.7% of patients. Healing complications were common in the immature CMF trauma case. Thus, the need for a comprehensive assessment of the entire CMF region during the initial visit, as well as follow-up, preferably using CT or cone beam CT, is underscored.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.932587","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,24]],"date-time":"2022-08-24T10:16:44Z","timestamp":1661336204000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Craniomaxillofacial trauma in immature dogs\u2013etiology, treatments, and outcomes"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Elias","family":"Wolfs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boaz","family":"Arzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose","family":"Guerrero Cota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip H.","family":"Kass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frank J. M.","family":"Verstraete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00241","article-title":"Craniomaxillofacial trauma in dogs\u2014part I: fracture location, morphology and etiology","volume":"7","author":"De Paolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3415\/VCOT-12-01-0003","article-title":"A retrospective study of 109 dogs with mandibular fractures","volume":"26","author":"Kitshoff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1177\/089875640502200202","article-title":"Oral fractures in dogs of brazil-a retrospective study","volume":"22","author":"Lopes","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.1990.tb01184.x","article-title":"Mandibular fractures in the dog a retrospective study of 157 cases","volume":"19","author":"Umphlet","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet Surg"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1111\/vsu.12691","article-title":"Mandibular body fracture repair with wire-reinforced interdental composite splint in small dogs","volume":"46","author":"Guzu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet Surg."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1177\/08987564211072332","article-title":"Etiology, clinical presentation, and outcome of mandibular fractures in immature dogs treated with non-invasive or minimally invasive techniques","volume":"39","author":"Castej\u00f3n-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Vet Dent"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1177\/08987564221082150","article-title":"Dental abnormalities in Immature dogs with a history of mandibular fractures","volume":"39","author":"Castejon-Gonzalez","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7020-7675-6.00042-5","article-title":"Maxillofacial fracture repair using miniplates and screws","volume-title":"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Dogs and Cats","author":"Boudrieau","year":"2020"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1177\/0898756418792625","article-title":"Management and outcome of maxillofacial trauma in a 9-week-old dog","volume":"35","author":"Castejon-Gonzalez","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3415\/VCOT-12-11-0140","article-title":"The comparative biomechanics of the reinforced interdental crossover and the stout loop composite splints for mandibular fracture repair in dogs","volume":"26","author":"Kitshoff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2013.11.004","article-title":"Canine pediatric dentistry","volume":"44","author":"Fulton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet Clin Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2005.02.003","article-title":"Juvenile veterinary dentistry","volume":"35","author":"Hale","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1177\/0898756418812818","article-title":"Repair of bilateral comminuted mandibular fractures in a 12-week-old puppy using locking and nonlocking maxillofacial reconstruction plates","volume":"35","author":"Basuki","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7020-7675-6.00036-X","article-title":"Principles of maxillofacial trauma repair","volume-title":"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Dogs and Cats","author":"Boudrieau","year":"2020"},{"key":"B15","first-page":"84","article-title":"The development of behavior","volume-title":"Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog","author":"Scott","year":"1965"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199295852.001.0001","article-title":"Change of behaviour in time: from birth to death","volume-title":"Dog Behavior, Evolution, and Cognition","author":"Mikloski","year":"2007"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijom.2005.09.014","article-title":"Pediatric facial fractures: recent advances in prevention, diagnosis and management","volume":"35","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1007\/s12663-014-0698-5","article-title":"Pediatric maxillofacial trauma outcomes based on a survey of 65 patients: a prospective study of etiology, incidence and methods of treatment","volume":"14","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Maxillofac Oral Surg."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1067\/moe.2000.107974","article-title":"Maxillofacial injuries in the pediatric patient","volume":"90","author":"Haug","year":"2000","journal-title":"Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.2008.00380.x","article-title":"The diagnostic yield of conventional radiographs and computed tomography in dogs and cats with maxillofacial trauma","volume":"37","author":"Bar-am","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet Surg"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/0266-4356(90)90098-6","article-title":"Computed tomography in the diagnosis of maxillofacial trauma","volume":"28","author":"Russell","year":"1990","journal-title":"Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr\/26977910","article-title":"A comparative study of evaluation of radiographs, CT and 3D reformatted CT in facial trauma: what is the role of 3D?","volume":"78","author":"Reuben","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br J Radiol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0037-1606250","article-title":"Analysis of the changing patterns of midface fractures using 3D computed tomography: an observational study","volume":"11","author":"Satish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.18869\/acadpub.beat.5.4.499","article-title":"Le fort fractures: a collective review","volume":"5","author":"Phillips","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull Emerg Trauma."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1001\/archotol.1986.03780020026007","article-title":"Three-dimensional computed tomography in maxillofacial trauma","volume":"112","author":"DeMarino","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joms.2017.05.002","article-title":"Intraoperative imaging changes management in orbital fracture repair","volume":"75","author":"Borad","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Oral Maxillofac Surg."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00242","article-title":"Craniomaxillofacial trauma in dogs\u2014part II: association between fracture location, morphology and etiology","volume":"7","author":"De Paolo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S6","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1389556","article-title":"The first AO classification system for fractures of the craniomaxillofacial skeleton: rationale, methodological background, developmental process, and objectives","volume":"7","author":"Audig\u00e9","year":"2014","journal-title":"Craniomaxillofacial Trauma Reconstr."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1390072","article-title":"The comprehensive AOCMF classification system: glossary of common terminology","volume":"7","author":"Cornelius","year":"2014","journal-title":"Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S031","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1389558","article-title":"The comprehensive AOCMF classification system: mandible fractures-level 3 tutorial","volume":"7","author":"Cornelius","year":"2014","journal-title":"Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr."},{"key":"B31","first-page":"94","volume-title":"Miller and Evans' Anatomy of the Dog","author":"Hermanson","year":"2020"},{"key":"B32","unstructured":"Cephalic Index - Wikipedia"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1097\/00006565-200106000-00002","article-title":"Facial fractures in children","volume":"17","author":"Holland","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr Emerg Care."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.242.1.69","article-title":"Computed tomographic findings in dogs and cats with temporomandibular joint disorders: 58 cases (2006\u20132011)","volume":"242","author":"Arzi","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-9785(78)80106-9","article-title":"Role of the meniscus in the etiology of post-traumatic temporomandibular joint ankylosis","volume":"7","author":"Laskin","year":"1978","journal-title":"Int J Oral Surg."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.2014.12161.x","article-title":"Internal fixation of severe maxillofacial fractures in dogs","volume":"44","author":"Arzi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet Surg."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1177\/0898756419846183","article-title":"Assessment of the role of the mandibular first molar tooth in mandibular fracture patterns of 29 dogs","volume":"36","author":"Scherer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/vsu.12401","article-title":"Caudal mandibular bone height and buccal cortical bone thickness measured by computed tomography in healthy dogs","volume":"45","author":"Snyder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet Surg."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1177\/089875640101800202","article-title":"Mandible and mandibular first molar tooth measurements in dogs: relationship of radiographic height to body weight","volume":"18","author":"Gioso","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Vet Dent."},{"key":"B40","first-page":"205","article-title":"Section of odontology the structure of the bones of the face in Relationship to Fracture and other Aspects of Facial Injuries: (Section of Odontology)","volume":"4","author":"Sprawson","year":"","journal-title":"Proc R Soc Med."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/ar.20619","article-title":"Bone remodeling in maxilla, mandible, and femur of young dogs","volume":"291","author":"Huja","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anat Rec."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1097\/MOO.0b013e3283543a9d","article-title":"Recent advances in fixation of the craniomaxillofacial skeleton","volume":"20","author":"Meslemani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0030-6665(20)30550-8","article-title":"Comparison of implant materials used in maxillofacial rigid Internal fixation","volume":"28","author":"Ellerbe","year":"1995","journal-title":"Otolaryngol Clin North Am."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0194-5998(99)70183-X","article-title":"Fate of rigid fixation in pediatric craniofacial surgery","volume":"121","author":"Berryhill","year":"1999","journal-title":"Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcms.2020.12.013","article-title":"Comparison of outcome of open reduction and internal fixation versus closed treatment in pediatric mandible fractures-a retrospective study","volume":"49","author":"Bansal","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Cranio Maxillofacial Surg."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4317\/jced.57323","article-title":"Closed versus open reduction of facial fractures in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Pereira","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Exp Dent."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joms.2020.12.022","article-title":"What factors are associated with open treatment of pediatric mandibularfFractures?","volume":"79","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Oral Maxillofac Surg."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1097\/SCS.0000000000005896","article-title":"Our treatment approach in pediatric maxillofacial traumas","volume":"30","author":"Bilgen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Craniofac Surg"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1097\/MOO.0b013e3283169321","article-title":"Pediatric facial trauma","volume":"16","author":"Meier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.932587\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,24]],"date-time":"2022-08-24T10:16:55Z","timestamp":1661336215000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.932587\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]},"references-count":49,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2022.932587"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2022.932587","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]]},"article-number":"932587"}}