{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T21:40:18Z","timestamp":1781818818215,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Avian trichomoniasis, caused by the protozoan parasite <jats:italic>Trichomonas gallinae<\/jats:italic>, is a prevalent and economically significant disease in pigeons. This study investigated the drug resistance of <jats:italic>T. gallinae<\/jats:italic> isolates in Guangdong Province, China. The results revealed that 25.3% (20\/79) of the isolates were resistant to one or more of the four nitroimidazole drugs tested, namely, metronidazole, dimetridazole, secnidazole, and tinidazole. Secnidazole elicited the highest resistance rate (19.0%; 15\/79), followed by tinidazole (17.7%; 14\/79), metronidazole (17.7%; 14\/79), and dimetridazole (13.9%; 11\/79). An enormous majority of the resistant isolates (70.0%; 14\/20) exhibited resistance to multiple drugs. Additionally, the resistance rate was significantly higher in isolates from birds aged &amp;lt; 30 days (53.3%; 8\/15) than in those from older birds (23.1%; 12\/52). Moreover, no drug resistance was detected in female pigeons. The genotype of the isolated strain was also associated with drug resistance. Specifically, 50.0% (15\/30) of ITS-B genotypes exhibited resistance to drugs, while only 10.2% (5\/49) of ITS-A genotypes demonstrated resistance. This study also found the growth characteristics of different <jats:italic>Trichomonas<\/jats:italic> isolates to be influenced by their genotypes and initial inoculum concentrations. These findings underscore the urgent need for effective measures to control and prevent drug-resistant <jats:italic>T. gallinae<\/jats:italic> infections in pigeons, thus ensuring the stable development of the pigeon industry.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1343321","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T04:31:23Z","timestamp":1704774683000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Drug resistance patterns and genotype associations of Trichomonas gallinae in meat pigeons (Columba livia): insights from Guangdong Province, China"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Haiming","family":"Cai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yibin","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siyun","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dingai","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhuanqiang","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanqin","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shenquan","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nanshan","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuhui","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junjing","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongle","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangjie","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lijun","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianfei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minna","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingfei","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/ajaees\/2020\/v38i630354","article-title":"Pigeon rearing - an investment analysis for secondary income generation to farm women, landless, marginal and small farmers","volume":"38","author":"Maity","year":"2020","journal-title":"Asian J Agric Extens Econ Sociol."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00217","article-title":"Chemical composition, cholesterol content, and fatty acid profile of pigeon meat as influenced by meat-type breeds","volume":"88","author":"Pomianowski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Poult Sci."},{"key":"B3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Squab raising","volume":"601","author":"Bolla","year":"2007","journal-title":"PrimeFacts."},{"key":"B4","unstructured":"Cr\u00eda de palomas: realidad en la estepa cerealista castellana467\n            Hern\u00e1ndezO\n          Mundo Ganad.1272000"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.22161\/ijeab.52.5","article-title":"Conservation of Italian autochthonous domestic pigeon breeds","volume":"5","author":"Piccoli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Agric Biotechnol."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2022.101744","article-title":"Influence of dietary phosphorus concentrations on the performance of rearing pigeons (Columba livia), and bone properties of squabs","volume":"101","author":"Ji","year":"2022","journal-title":"Poult Sci."},{"key":"B7","article-title":"Status and constraints in livestock farming amongst tribal farmers of kamrup district in Assam","author":"Mazumder","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econ Aff."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.47829\/COS.2020.4101","article-title":"Evaluation of the productive and reproductive performance of pigeon in selected districts of Bangladesh","volume":"4","author":"Akter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Surg."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5455\/JBAU.97504","article-title":"Breeds distribution and management practices of pigeon farming in Sri Lanka","volume":"19","author":"Ahamed","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Bangladesh Agric Univ."},{"key":"B10","first-page":"1039","article-title":"field study on pigeon production systems in the rural sector of El-Sharkia Governoarate, Egypt","volume":"34","author":"Omar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Egypt Poult Sci J."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox8100435","article-title":"Effects of dietary supplementation with DL-methionine and DL-methionyl-DL-methionine in breeding pigeons on the carcass characteristics, meat quality and antioxidant activity of squabs","volume":"8","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antioxidants."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2019.f381","article-title":"Prevalence of Trichomonas gallinae infection in pigeon of Jessore District, Bangladesh","volume":"6","author":"Arfin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Adv Vet Anim Res."},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.18805\/IJAR.B-3805","article-title":"Prevalence and pathology of Trichomonas gallinae in domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica) of Assam, India","volume":"55","author":"Saikia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J Anim Res."},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2015.10.029","article-title":"Prevalence of Trichomonas spp. in domestic pigeons in Shandong Province, China, and genotyping by restriction fragment length polymorphism","volume":"211","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet J."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2018.08.021","article-title":"Prevalence and molecular characterization of Trichomonas gallinae from domestic pigeons in Beijing, China","volume":"65","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3183","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-022-07640-2","article-title":"Prevalence and diversity of Trichomonas gallinae in meat pigeons (Columba livia) in Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China","volume":"121","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasitol Res."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19978","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76821-9","article-title":"Changes in the diversity and composition of gut microbiota in pigeon squabs infected with Trichomonas gallinae","volume":"10","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12101306","article-title":"Trichomonosis in Austrian Songbirds\u2014Geographic distribution, pathological lesions and genetic characterization over nine years","volume":"12","author":"Brunthaler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animals."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-011-0082-z","article-title":"Prevalence of Haemoproteus columbae and Trichomonas gallinae in pigeons (Columba domestica) in Isfahan, Iran","volume":"36","author":"Nematollahi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Parasit Dis."},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450902912135","article-title":"Prevalence and genotyping of Trichomonas gallinae in pigeons and birds of prey","volume":"38","author":"Sansano-Maestre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1474-919X.2005.00466.x","article-title":"The incidence of the parasitic disease trichomoniasis and its treatment in reintroduced and wild Pink Pigeons Columba mayeri","volume":"147","author":"Swinnerton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ibis"},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2007.01.002","article-title":"Molecular identity and heterogeneity of trichomonad parasites in a closed avian population","volume":"7","author":"Gaspar da Silva","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S177997","article-title":"Genetic variation in metronidazole metabolism and oxidative stress pathways in clinical Giardia lamblia assemblage A and B isolates","volume":"12","author":"Saghaug","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect Drug Resist."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0224032","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224032","article-title":"Membrane associated proteins of two Trichomonas gallinae clones vary with the virulence","volume":"14","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Herrero","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(98)00164-2","article-title":"In vivo and in vitro sensitivity of Trichomonas gallinae to some nitroimidazole drugs","volume":"78","author":"Munoz","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.1996.tb00010.x","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and anti-trichomonal efficacy of a dimetridazole tablet and water-soluble powder in homing pigeons (Columb a livia)","volume":"19","author":"Inghelbrecht","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Vet Pharmacol Ther."},{"key":"B27","first-page":"29","article-title":"Efficacy of herbal and commercially available antiprotozoal drugs on pigeon trichmoniasis","volume":"2","author":"Biswas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Biores."},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.21608\/avmj.1993.185833","article-title":"Some studies on Trichomonas gallinae infection in pigeons","volume":"30","author":"Abd-El-Motelib","year":"1993","journal-title":"Assiut Vet Med J."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00909-08","article-title":"Giardia, Entamoeba, and Trichomonas enzymes activate metronidazole (nitroreductases) and inactivate metronidazole (nitroimidazole reductases)","volume":"53","author":"Pal","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother."},{"key":"B30","first-page":"136","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo evaluations of Pelargonium roseum essential oil activity against Trichomonas gallinae","volume":"8","author":"Abouhosseini Tabari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Avicenna J Phytomed"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"981763","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.981763","article-title":"Anti-Trichomonas gallinae activity of essential oils and main compounds from Lamiaceae and Asteraceae plants","volume":"9","author":"Bail\u00e9n","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B32","unstructured":"CFR-Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 PART 530 Extralabel Drug Use in Animals2023"},{"key":"B33","first-page":"3","article-title":"Commission Regulation (EC) No 2205\/2001","author":"European","year":"2001","journal-title":"Off J Eur Commun."},{"key":"B34","first-page":"14","article-title":"Commission Regulation (EC) No 613\/98","author":"European","year":"1998","journal-title":"Off J Eur Commun."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1080\/00071668.2021.1881043","article-title":"Comparative pharmacokinetics of metronidazole in healthy and Trichomonas gallinae infected pigeons (Columba livia, var. domestica)","volume":"62","author":"Tabari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br Poult Sci."},{"key":"B36","unstructured":"Announcement No. 235 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China.2002"},{"key":"B37","unstructured":"Announcement No. 250 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China.2019"},{"key":"B38","volume-title":"Textbook of Veterinary Parasitology: Introduction to Parasitology: Protozoology","author":"Mihalca","year":"2013"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1645\/13-359.1","article-title":"Racing pigeons: a reservoir for nitro-imidazole-resistant Trichomonas gallinae","volume":"100","author":"Rouffaer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msy096","article-title":"MEGA X: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis across computing platforms","volume":"35","author":"Kumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2014.967660","article-title":"Genetic characterization of oropharyngeal trichomonad isolates from wild birds indicates that genotype is associated with host species, diet and presence of pathognomonic lesions","volume":"43","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Herrero","year":"2014","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.04.015","article-title":"Molecular analysis of clonal trichomonad isolates indicate the existence of heterogenic species present in different birds and within the same host","volume":"172","author":"Grabensteiner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1335","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-1585.1","article-title":"Molecular characterization of the Trichomonas gallinae morphologic complex in the United States","volume":"94","author":"Gerhold","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Parasitol."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.21608\/puj.2019.19332.1054","article-title":"Genotyping of Trichomonas vaginalis isolates from Egypt","volume":"12","author":"Mohamed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol United J."},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.1992.tb01032.x","article-title":"In vitro nitroimidazole resistance of Trichomonas gallinae and successful therapy with an increased dosage of ronidazole in racing pigeons (Columba livia domestica)","volume":"15","author":"Franssen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Vet Pharmacol Ther."},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2011.02.003","article-title":"Genetically different clonal isolates of Trichomonas gallinae, obtained from the same bird, can vary in their drug susceptibility, an in vitro evidence","volume":"60","author":"Zimre-Grabensteiner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol Int."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.30466\/vrf.2019.102620.2444","article-title":"In vitro assessment of anti-trichomonas effects of Zingiber officinale and Lavandula angustifolia alcoholic extracts on Trichomonas gallinae","volume":"12","author":"Malekifard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet Res Forum"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.58803\/JWPS.2022.1.2.01","article-title":"Treatment of avian trichomoniasis by tannin-based herbal mixture (Artemisia Annua, Quercus infectoria, and Allium Sativum)","volume":"1","author":"Sadr","year":"2022","journal-title":"J World's Poult Sci."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12786","article-title":"Review of alternatives to antibiotic use in aquaculture","author":"Bondad-Reantaso","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev Aquac."},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.20473\/mkh.v33i3.2022.188-207","article-title":"Escherichia coli infections, and antimicrobial resistance in poultry flocks, in north central Nigeria","volume":"33","author":"Akanbi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Media Kedokt Hewan."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00365-4","article-title":"Resistance to antiparasitic drugs: the role of molecular diagnosis","volume":"32","author":"Sangster","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol."},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457.2021.1940099","article-title":"Sequence subtyping of Trichomonas gallinae from Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) during four years (2014\u20132017) reveals that MLS type is associated with lesions","volume":"50","author":"Mart\u00ednez-Herrero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Avian Pathol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.11.2.300","article-title":"Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis","volume":"11","author":"Petrin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1343321\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T04:31:32Z","timestamp":1704774692000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1343321\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"references-count":53,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2023.1343321"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2023.1343321","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]]},"article-number":"1343321"}}