{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T16:36:59Z","timestamp":1753893419085,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]],"date-time":"2024-09-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Exposure rates to <jats:italic>Histoplasma<\/jats:italic> species, the causative agent of equine epizootic lymphangitis (EL), are unknown amongst working equids in The Gambia. The primary aims of this study were to estimate anti-<jats:italic>Histoplasma<\/jats:italic> antibody seroprevalence in the equid population in rural The Gambia and to explore risk factors for seropositivity.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>A nationwide cross-sectional study was conducted (February\u2013July 2022), representing baseline measurements of a longitudinal cohort study. Horses (<jats:italic>n\u2009=<\/jats:italic> 463) and donkeys (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u200992) without EL signs were recruited in 18 study sites. Following informed owner consent, equid clinical and management data were recorded. Blood samples were collected by jugular venepuncture, and sera were subject to the IMMY Latex Agglutination <jats:italic>Histoplasma<\/jats:italic> test (LAT). Seropositivity risk factors were explored by multi-level, multivariable logistic regression analysis. Study site and household variance were described using a latent-variable approach. Whole blood DNA extractions were subject to nested ITS-PCR to detect <jats:italic>Histoplasma capsulatum<\/jats:italic> var. <jats:italic>farciminosum<\/jats:italic> (HCF), and agreement with LAT results was measured using Cohen\u2019s kappa statistic.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Anti-<jats:italic>Histoplasma<\/jats:italic> antibody seroprevalence in horses and donkeys was 79.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 76.0\u201383.5%] and 46.7% (95% CI 36.3\u201357.4%), respectively. In <jats:italic>horses<\/jats:italic>, two multivariable models explained the maximum amount of data variability. Model 1 demonstrated increased odds of seropositivity in mares [odds ratio (OR)\u2009=\u20092.90 95% CI 1.70\u20134.95, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.001] and decreased odds in horses &amp;lt;2.5\u2009years (OR\u2009=\u20090.46 95% CI 0.22\u20130.95, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.04; reference: \u22654.5\u2009years). Model 2 demonstrated increased odds in horses recruited during the rainy season (OR\u2009=\u20092.03 95% CI 1.08\u20133.84, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.03) and those owned by farmers reporting previous EL in their equids (OR\u2009=\u20091.87 95% CI 1.04\u20133.37, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.04). Decreased odds were measured in horses &amp;lt;2.5\u2009years (OR\u2009=\u20090.37 95% CI 0.18\u20130.78, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.01) and horses reported to transport firewood (OR\u2009=\u20090.45 95% CI 0.28\u20130.74, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.001). On multivariable analysis of <jats:italic>donkeys<\/jats:italic>, decreased odds of seropositivity were demonstrated amongst donkeys owned by households which also owned horses (OR\u2009=\u20090.23 95% CI 0.06\u20130.85, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.03). HCF infection prevalence in horses and donkeys was 22.0% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009102\/463, 95% CI 18.3\u201326.1%) and 5.4% (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20095\/92, 95% CI 1.8\u201312.2%), respectively. No significant agreement was measured between LAT and nested ITS-PCR results (<jats:italic>\u03ba<\/jats:italic>\u2009&amp;lt;\u20090.00).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>High <jats:italic>Histoplasma<\/jats:italic> spp. exposure was demonstrated amongst equids in The Gambia. Investigation of risk factors, including equid husbandry and management strategies, as well as geoclimatic variations, is warranted. Outcomes may inform sustainable and equitable EL control strategies in The Gambia and comparable settings worldwide.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1444887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]],"date-time":"2024-09-19T06:01:26Z","timestamp":1726725686000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exploring Histoplasma species seroprevalence and risk factors for seropositivity in The Gambia\u2019s working equid population: Baseline analysis of the Tackling Histoplasmosis project dataset"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Tessa Rose","family":"Cornell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Biram Laity","family":"Fye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edrisa","family":"Nyassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fatou","family":"Ceesay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mahmud","family":"Jallow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R. Fr\u00e8di","family":"Langendonk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan G.","family":"Wootton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gina","family":"Pinchbeck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claire Elizabeth","family":"Scantlebury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","unstructured":"Allan\n              FK\n            \n          \n          A landscaping analysis of working equid population numbers in LMICs, with policy recommendations\n          \n          2021"},{"volume-title":"The role, impact and welfare of working (traction and transport) animals","year":"2014","key":"ref2"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-022-01613-8","article-title":"The global contributions of working equids to sustainable agriculture and livelihoods in agenda 2030","volume":"19","author":"Grace","year":"2022","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref4","first-page":"10","article-title":"Socioeconomic impact of epizootic lymphangitis in cart mules in Bahir Dar City, north West Ethiopia","author":"Bekele","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2015.03.012","article-title":"Participatory appraisal of the impact of epizootic lymphangitis in Ethiopia","volume":"120","author":"Scantlebury","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"ref6","first-page":"83","article-title":"Socioeconomic impact of epizootic Lymphangitis (EL) on horse-drawn taxi business in Central Ethiopia","author":"Nigatu","year":"2010"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0278964","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0278964","article-title":"Striving towards access to essential medicines for human and animal health; a situational analysis of access to and use of antifungal medications for histoplasmosis in Ethiopia","volume":"18","author":"Robertson","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2006.06.003","article-title":"Epizootic lymphangitis: the impact on subsistence economies and animal welfare","volume":"172","author":"Jones","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"volume-title":"La Lymphangite \u00e9pizootique: revue g\u00e9n\u00e9rale de la maladie et observations cliniques en R\u00e9publique du S\u00e9n\u00e9gal. 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