{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T10:53:35Z","timestamp":1793444015210,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745539200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the most prevalent cancer of the urinary tract in dogs. The prognosis is often poor, and the optimal standard treatment has not been established. The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the clinical outcomes of dogs with TCC, and (2) determine the potential effects of tumor locations and treatment modalities on the survival times of patients. Electronic records of client-owned dogs with TCC treated with different modalities in a large veterinary hospital in Hong Kong (2005\u20132024) were evaluated. Of 84 confirmed cases included in the study, 49 (58.3%) died or were euthanized due to TCC. Tumors were located in the bladder neck or trigone region (41), apex (26), prostate (10), and urethra (7). Metastases were detected in 10 patients (12%) at diagnosis, including 4 peripheral lymph nodes, 4 lungs, and 2 in the lumbar spine. Of 84 cases, 4 (4.8%) did not receive any treatments, 14 (16.7%) underwent surgery, 25 (29.7%) received metronomic chemotherapy with chlorambucil with\/without methotrexate, 27 (32.1%) received COX-2 inhibitors alone, and 14 (16.7%) received conventional chemotherapy, of which, 5 were later switched to metronomic chemotherapy. The overall median survival time was 233\u202fdays. There was no statistically significant difference in patients\u2019 survival between tumor locations (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;gt;\u202f0.05), aside from tumors involving the prostate that had the shortest MST (88\u202fdays). Metronomic chemotherapy led to a significantly longer survival time (median of 303\u202fdays) than the other treatment groups (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05), with the lowest incidence of adverse events. Metronomic chemotherapy using chlorambucil was well-tolerated and can be considered as a single modality treatment or as adjunctive therapy to conventional chemotherapy in dogs with TCC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1486786","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T13:48:54Z","timestamp":1745588934000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Treatment outcomes of dogs with transitional cell carcinoma"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Ka To","family":"Chu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Omid","family":"Nekouei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Giuliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02424.x","article-title":"Canine transitional cell carcinoma","volume":"17","author":"Mutsaers","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1992.tb00330.x","article-title":"Canine bladder and urethral tumors: a retrospective study of 115 cases (1980\u20131985)","volume":"6","author":"Norris","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1080\/15287398909531360","article-title":"Epidemiologic study of insecticide exposures, obesity, and risk of bladder cancer in household dogs","volume":"28","author":"Glickman","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Toxicol Environ Health"},{"key":"ref4","first-page":"133","article-title":"Clinical outcomes of dogs with transitional cell carcinoma receiving medical therapy, with and without partial cystectomy","volume":"62","author":"Bradbury","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can Vet J"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12483","article-title":"Survival analysis in dogs with urinary transitional cell carcinoma that underwent whole-body computed tomography at diagnosis","volume":"17","author":"Iwasaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16994","article-title":"Reason for euthanasia in dogs with urothelial carcinoma treated with chemotherapy or radiation therapy or both: a retrospective observational study","volume":"38","author":"McKenna","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(03)00032-9","article-title":"Management of transitional cell carcinoma","volume":"33","author":"Henry","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet Clin N Am Small Anim Pract"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13142395","article-title":"A retrospective Clinico-pathologic study of 35 dogs with urethral transitional cell carcinoma undergoing treatment","volume":"13","author":"Ghisoni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2015.01.017","article-title":"Management of transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder in dogs: a review","volume":"205","author":"Fulkerson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S1078-1439(99)00006-X","article-title":"Naturally-occurring canine transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder a relevant model of human invasive bladder cancer","volume":"5","author":"Knapp","year":"2000","journal-title":"Urol Oncol"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12013","article-title":"Randomized trial of cisplatin versus Firocoxib versus cisplatin\/Firocoxib in dogs with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder","volume":"27","author":"Knapp","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2010.0569.x","article-title":"Phase I clinical trial and pharmacokinetics of Intravesical Mitomycin C in dogs with localized transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder","volume":"24","author":"Abbo","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12594","article-title":"Early tumor response to Intraarterial or intravenous Administration of Carboplatin to treat naturally occurring lower urinary tract carcinoma in dogs","volume":"29","author":"Culp","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2011.00796.x","article-title":"Clinical trial of vinblastine in dogs with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder","volume":"25","author":"Arnold","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12009","article-title":"Retrospective evaluation of doxorubicin\u2013piroxicam combination for the treatment of transitional cell carcinoma in dogs","volume":"54","author":"Robat","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1994.tb03232.x","article-title":"Piroxicam therapy in 34 dogs with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder","volume":"8","author":"Knapp","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12533","article-title":"Randomized phase III trial of Piroxicam in combination with Mitoxantrone or carboplatin for first-line treatment of urogenital tract transitional cell carcinoma in dogs","volume":"29","author":"Allstadt","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"key":"ref18","first-page":"906","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of mitoxantrone and piroxicam in a canine model of human invasive urinary bladder carcinoma","volume":"9","author":"Henry","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Cancer Res"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2000.61.478","article-title":"Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder in dogs","volume":"61","author":"Khan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12286","article-title":"Clinical outcome of partial cystectomy for transitional cell carcinoma of the canine bladder","volume":"15","author":"Marvel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref21","first-page":"73","article-title":"Total cystectomy and subsequent urinary diversion to the prepuce or vagina in dogs with transitional cell carcinoma of the trigone area: a report of 10 cases (2005\u20132011)","volume":"56","author":"Saeki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Can Vet J"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12345","article-title":"Overexpression of HER-2 via immunohistochemistry in canine urinary bladder transitional cell carcinoma \u2013 a marker of malignancy and possible therapeutic target","volume":"16","author":"Millanta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5829.2011.00280.x","article-title":"Prospective trial of metronomic chlorambucil chemotherapy in dogs with naturally occurring cancer","volume":"10","author":"Leach","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.625527","article-title":"Case report: long-term survival of a dog with chronic lymphocytic leukemia treated with Chlorambucil, prednisolone, and Imatinib","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1534","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.242.11.1534","article-title":"Metronomic administration of chlorambucil for treatment of dogs with urinary bladder transitional cell carcinoma","volume":"242","author":"Schrempp","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12032","article-title":"Response evaluation criteria for solid tumours in dogs (v1.0): a veterinary cooperative oncology group (VCOG) consensus document","volume":"13","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12677","article-title":"Veterinary cooperative oncology group-common terminology criteria for adverse events (VCOG-CTCAE v2) following investigational therapy in dogs and cats","volume":"19","author":"LeBlanc","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref28","first-page":"1878","article-title":"Antiangiogenic scheduling of chemotherapy improves efficacy against experimental drug-resistant cancer","volume":"60","author":"Browder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI35180","article-title":"The anticancer immune response: indispensable for therapeutic success?","volume":"118","author":"Zitvogel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11040169","article-title":"Canine prostate Cancer: current treatments and the role of interventional oncology","volume":"11","author":"Gibson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1556\/avet.2012.005","article-title":"Clinical factors determining the efficacy of urinary bladder tumour treatments in dogs: surgery, chemotherapy or both?","volume":"60","author":"Moln\u00e1r","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Vet Hung"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.1996.tb01745.x","article-title":"Partial cystectomy for urinary bladder neoplasia: surgical technique and outcome in 11 dogs","volume":"37","author":"Stone","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1111\/vco.12400","article-title":"Outcome and prognostic factors in medically treated canine prostatic carcinomas: a multi-institutional study","volume":"16","author":"Ravicini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet Comp Oncol"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.259.4.385","article-title":"A prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded clinical trial comparing the incidence and severity of gastrointestinal adverse events in dogs with cancer treated with piroxicam alone or in combination with omeprazole or famotidine","volume":"259","author":"Shaevitz","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1517\/14740330903311023","article-title":"Renal adverse effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs","volume":"8","author":"Harirforoosh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Expert Opin Drug Saf"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-016-0882-6","article-title":"A pilot study of toceranib\/vinblastine therapy for canine transitional cell carcinoma","volume":"12","author":"Rippy","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19810315)47:6<1246::AID-CNCR2820470603>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Methotrexate: an active drug in bladder cancer","volume":"47","author":"Natale","year":"1981","journal-title":"Cancer"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1486786\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]],"date-time":"2025-04-25T13:48:55Z","timestamp":1745588935000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1486786\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"references-count":37,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2025.1486786"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1486786","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,25]]},"article-number":"1486786"}}