{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T16:52:17Z","timestamp":1792687937766,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759449600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>This study investigates the epidemiological characteristics of significant gastrointestinal protozoa diseases among calves, including cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, and eimeriosis, in Kazakhstan.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using cross-sectional surveys and laboratory diagnostics we examined the age and seasonal dynamics of intestinal parasitic infestations in calves, specifically focusing on Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., and Eimeria spp. For this purpose, samples of feces were individually collected from 1,586 calves of varying ages and breeds in 12 industrialized farms from 11 districts of Akmola and Northern Kazakhstan Regions. Parasites were identified using Fuelleborn, Heine and ZnSO4 flotation microscopic techniques. Calves were categorized into four age groups (1\u201330, 31\u201390, 91\u2013120, and &amp;gt;120 days) to evaluate the prevalence and age- associated risk of infection with above parasite species, and their combinations. Logistic regression was performed to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), using calves aged 1-30 days as the reference group. To examine the effects of age and time of year on the likelihood of parasitic infection ANOVA and a generalized additive logistic model (GAM) were used. It was found that in all investigated farms the age significantly influences the likelihood of infection with each parasite.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results and discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Cryptosporidium spp. infections were highly concentrated in the youngest calves, with prevalence 49.2% detected in the 1-30-day group. The risk of infection dropped dramatically with older age (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001). Prevalence Eimeria spp. in the 1-month group was 2.0% and significantly increased with age. Calves aged 31-90 days had 27.3 times higher odds of infection (95% CI: 17.07\u201345.35, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001), with elevated odds persisting in older groups (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &amp;lt; 0.001). 5.2% of the youngest calves were infected with Giardia spp., and the species was more evenly distributed across age groups, with no statistically significant variation. No significant seasonal variation in infection rates was found. These findings suggest that at the conditions of intensive dairy farming in central and northern Kazakhstan the age-targeted parasite control strategies may be more effective than seasonal approaches for managing parasitic infections' control in calves.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1635456","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T17:24:37Z","timestamp":1759512277000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Prevalence and infestation dynamics of intestinal protozoa infections (cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis and eimeriosis) among calves in dairy farms of Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Altay","family":"Ussenbayev","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dariyash","family":"Kurenkeyeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ali","family":"Aydin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Sakhariya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saidulla","family":"Ruzmatov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","unstructured":"Astana\n          Author.stat.gov.kz\n          Number of livestock in the Republic of Kazakhstan as of January 1.\n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B2","unstructured":"34495171\n          Republican Chamber of Dairy and Combined Breeds of Cattle\n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.51452\/kazatuvc.2023.2(002).1419","article-title":"Evaluation of dairy cows' welfare in northern Kazakhstan farms","volume":"2","author":"Ussenbayev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet Sci."},{"key":"B4","unstructured":"Epizootology of cryptosporidiosis in Northern Kazakhstan\n          \n          49\n          60\n          \n            \n              Ibrayev\n              B\n            \n            \n              Lider\n              L\n            \n            \n              Kirju\u0161ina\n              M\n            \n            \n              Seitkamzina\n              D\n            \n            \n              Rakhimzhanova\n              D\n            \n            \n              Prokopenko\n              AP\n            \n          \n          Acta Biol Univ Daugavpiliensis.\n          16\n          2016"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-24302-9_39","article-title":"Modeling the epidemiological processes of economically significant infections of animals","volume":"11621","author":"Abdrakhmanov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lect Notes Comput Sci."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.11591\/ijeecs.v30.i3.pp1762-1770","article-title":"Principal component analysis in the epidemiology of diarrhoea in calves","volume":"30","author":"Kadyrov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indones J Electr Eng Comput Sci."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2463-3","article-title":"Molecular investigation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in pre- and post-weaned calves in Hubei Province, China","volume":"10","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vect."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2019.101333","article-title":"Molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis and Cryptosporidium parvum from calves with diarrhoea in Austria and evaluation of point-of-care tests","volume":"66","author":"Lichtmannsperger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2020058","article-title":"Prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in dairy cattle in Gansu, northwest China","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.104600","article-title":"Eimeria species in cattle with diarrhoea in the Republic of Korea regarding age, season and nature of diarrhea","volume":"183","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet Rec."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-7-112","article-title":"Giardiosis and other enteropathogenic infections: a study on diarrhoeic calves in Southern Germany","volume":"7","author":"Gillhuber","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes."},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-019-02069-9","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for agents causing diarrhea (Coronavirus, Rotavirus, Cryptosporidium spp","volume":"52","author":"Monteiro Couto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop Anim Health Prod"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.02.006","article-title":"Pathogenic mechanisms of Cryptosporidium and Giardia","volume":"33","author":"Certad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2020047","article-title":"Update on Giardia: highlights from the seventh International Giardia and Cryptosporidium Conference","volume":"27","author":"Buret","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2022.105632","article-title":"Global prevalence of Giardia duodenalis in cattle: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"2022","author":"Taghipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.12703\/P7-62","article-title":"Advances in understanding Giardia: determinants and mechanisms of chronic sequelae","volume":"7","author":"Bartelt","year":"2015","journal-title":"F1000Prime Rep"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429294105-7","article-title":"Coccidiosis in cattle","volume-title":"Coccidiosis in Livestock, Poultry, Companion Animals and Humans","author":"Bangoura","year":"2019"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00410","article-title":"10-Year Surveillance of Eimeria spp. in cattle and buffaloes in a mediterranean area","volume":"7","author":"Morgoglione","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture8090132","volume":"8","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agriculture"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1590\/S1984-296120170723","article-title":"Prevalence of Eimeria spp in calves from dairy farms in northern Paran\u00e1 state, Brazil","volume":"27","author":"Cardim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Braz J Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2023.1489-1495","article-title":"First molecular prevalence of Eimeria spp. in dairy cattle in Khon Kaen, Thailand","volume":"16","author":"Keomoungkhoun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet World."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prevalence and infection risk factors of bovine Eimeria in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis\n          \n          61\n          \n            \n              Li\n              DL\n            \n            \n              Gong\n              QL\n            \n            \n              Ge\n              GY\n            \n            \n              Wang\n              Q\n            \n            \n              Sheng\n              CY\n            \n            \n              Ma\n              BY\n            \n          \n          10.1051\/parasite\/2021055\n          34374643\n          Parasite.\n          28\n          2021","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2021055"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11236","DOI":"10.18697\/ajfand.76.15615","article-title":"Eimeria infection in calves under local farming system in and around Asella, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia","volume":"16","author":"Hiko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Afr J Food Agri Nutri Dev."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-58814-4_59","article-title":"Prevalence of calves' cryptosporidiosis in Northern Kazakhstan","volume":"12253","author":"Ussenbayev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lect Notes Comput Sci."},{"key":"B25","unstructured":"An epidemiological situation of cattle's cryptosporidiosis in Central Kazakhstan (Akmola Oblast)\n          \n          154\n          65\n          \n            \n              Ussenbayev\n              AE\n            \n            \n              Kurenkeyeva\n              DT\n            \n            \n              Bissengaliyev\n              RM\n            \n            \n              Zhanabayev\n              AA\n            \n            \n              Lider\n              LA\n            \n          \n          Her Sci S Seifullin Kazakh Agro Tech Uni\n          3\n          2018"},{"key":"B26","unstructured":"Prevalence of zoonotic intestinal protozoa infections of cats in Central Asia and border regions\n          \n          8092\n          \n            \n              Lider\n              L\n            \n            \n              Seitkamzina\n              D\n            \n            \n              Ussenbayev\n              A\n            \n            \n              Kiyan\n              V\n            \n            \n              Zhanabayev\n              A\n            \n            \n              Sakhariya\n              L\n            \n          \n          Her Sci S Seifullin Kazakh Agro Tech Uni\n          2\n          2025"},{"key":"B27","unstructured":"Kazakhstan: Current Climate\n          \n          2025"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1097\/01.NAJ.0000794280.73744.fe","article-title":"Cross-sectional studies","volume":"121","author":"Capili","year":"2021","journal-title":"AJN."},{"key":"B29","unstructured":"Intestinal helminth and coccidian parasites in stray dogs housed in municipal animal shelter of Nur-Sultan city and recommendations for a parasite control\n          \n          202\n          11\n          \n            \n              Bauer\n              Ch\n            \n            \n              Lider\n              LA\n            \n            \n              Ussenbayev\n              AE\n            \n            \n              Zhanabayev\n              AA\n            \n            \n              Seyitkamzina\n              DM\n            \n          \n          Her Sci S Seifullin Kazakh Agro Tech Univ Vet Sci\n          3\n          2019"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0450.1982.tb01233.x","article-title":"Eine einfache Nachweismethode f\u00fcr Kryptosporidien im Kot","volume":"29","author":"Heine","year":"1982","journal-title":"Zentralbl Veterin\u00e4rmed."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.3844\/ajavsp.2024.273.279","article-title":"Prevalence of Giardia duodenalis in household and shelter cats in Almaty, South-Eastern Kazakhstan","volume":"19","author":"Lider","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Anim Vet Sci."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2338","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11092338","article-title":"Giardia duodenalis (Styles, 1902) in cattle: Isolation of calves with diarrhoea and manure treatment in the lagoon presented as risk factors in Latvian herds","volume":"11","author":"Mateusa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949462","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.949462","article-title":"Prevalence and multilocus genotyping of Giardia duodenalis in Holstein cattle in Yunnan Province, China","volume":"9","author":"Heng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci."},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2018.01.009","article-title":"Association between passive immunity and health status of dairy calves under 30 days of age","volume":"152","author":"Lora","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med."},{"key":"B35","first-page":"284","article-title":"Radulescu S. Giardia sp: physical factors of excystation in vitro, and excystation vs eosin exclusion as determinants of viability","volume-title":"Exp Par","author":"Bingham","year":"1979"},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-346","article-title":"Molecular identification of zoonotic and livestock-specific Giardia-species in faecal samples of calves in Southern Germany","author":"Gillhuber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11010103","article-title":"Literature review: co-infection in young ruminant livestock\u2014Cryptosporidium spp. and its companions","volume":"11","author":"Delling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathogens."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817001224","article-title":"Periurban outbreaks of bovine calf scours in Northern India caused by Cryptosporidium in association with other enteropathogens","volume":"145","author":"Brar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect."},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1515\/ap-2017-0026","article-title":"Report of fatal mixed infection with Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia intestinalis in neonatal calves","volume":"62","author":"Matsuura","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e64","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2019.20.e64","article-title":"Causative agents and epidemiology of diarrhea in Korean native calves","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Vet Sci"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3310-5","article-title":"Prevalence and genotypic identification of Cryptosporidium spp, Giardia duodenalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in pre-weaned dairy calves in Guangdong, China","volume":"12","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit Vect"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9168","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-14010","article-title":"Preweaned heifer management on US dairy operations: Part I Descriptive characteristics of preweaned heifer raising practices","volume":"101","author":"Urie","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Dairy Sci"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2019.198-204","article-title":"Prevalence and diversity of gastrointestinal protozoa in Madura cattle at Bangkalan Regency, East Java, Indonesia","volume":"12","author":"Hastutiek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1007\/s40588-021-00159-7","article-title":"Cryptosporidium: host-parasite interactions and pathogenesis","volume":"8","author":"Pinto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Clin Microbiol Rep."},{"key":"B45","first-page":"268","article-title":"Cryptosporidium species of dairy cattle in the North Kazakhstan Region","author":"Usenbayev","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Conference Modern S&T Equipment and Problems in Agriculture, Kemerovo"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06266-1","article-title":"Distribution of Cryptosporidium parvum gp60 subtypes in calf herds of Saxony, Germany","volume":"118","author":"Holzhausen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasitol Res."},{"key":"B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.2478\/s11686-020-00230-1","article-title":"Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in the global population: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"65","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Parasitol."},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3839","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-06904-z","article-title":"Longitudinal detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in 1\u201310-week-old dairy calves on a farm in Xinjiang, China","volume":"119","author":"Qi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol Res."},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1893901","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-011-2715-7","article-title":"Bovine Eimeria species in Austria","volume":"110","author":"Koutny","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasitol Res"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-019-06481-w","article-title":"Epidemiological survey and risk factor analysis on Eimeria infections in calves and young cattle up to 1 year old in Colombia","volume":"119","author":"Lopez-Osorio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol Res"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2019.12.006","article-title":"Ruminant Coccidiosis","volume":"36","author":"Bangoura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1590\/S1984-29612017072","article-title":"Prevalence of Eimeria spp. in calves from dairy farms in northern Paran\u00e1 state, Brazil","volume":"27","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Rev Bras Parasitol Vet"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2021055","article-title":"Prevalence and trends of Eimeria infection in cattle in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasite."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1635456\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]],"date-time":"2025-10-03T17:24:41Z","timestamp":1759512281000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1635456\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]]},"references-count":53,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2025.1635456"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1635456","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,3]]},"article-number":"1635456"}}