{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T06:10:09Z","timestamp":1756447809415,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Vet. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Glycinin is identified as one of the major dietary allergens in soybean. However, the safety threshold of glycinin in piglets have not been clearly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the anti-nutritional effects and sensitization threshold of purified glycinin in weaned piglets. In this experiment, 45 21-day-old weaned castrated piglets (Duroc \u00d7 Landrace \u00d7 Yorkshire), with a similar initial body weight of 9.95\u202f\u00b1\u202f0.43\u202fkg, were randomly divided into five groups with nine replicates per group. The piglets in the control group were fed a basal diet, while the piglets in the experimental groups were fed diets containing 1, 2, 3 and 4% purified glycinin, respectively, based on the same basal diet. After determination, the glycine content in the diets of each group was 0.704, 8.779, 16.857, 24.934, and 33.011\u202fmg\/g, respectively. Samples of feces, serum, digesta, as well as the segments and mucosa of the small intestine, were collected. The measured parameters included the nutrient apparent metabolic rate, digestive enzyme activities, levels of specific immunoglobulin G, histamine (HIS), and D-lactic acid (D-LA) levels, along with small intestinal morphology. The results showed that, compared to the control group, the average daily gain, the average daily feed intake, and the ratio of weight gain to feed intake of the piglets were linearly and quadratically decreased by the inclusion of 2, 3, and 4% glycinin in the diets (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). In addition, positive skin sensitization, increased erythema diameter, and elevated specific immunoglobulin G titers were induced by glycinin inclusion (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). In addition, 2, 3, and 4% glycinin administration led to decreases in the apparent nutrient metabolic ratio and digestive enzyme activities (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). Moreover, the levels of HIS, diamine oxidase, and D-lactic acid in the small intestine were increased in response to 3 and 4% glycinin supplementation (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). In addition, the reduced D-xylose concentration and damaged intestinal morphology in the piglets observed were induced by the inclusion of 2, 3, and 4% glycinin (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\u202f&amp;lt;\u202f0.05). The above results indicate that glycinin inclusion at doses above 1% can trigger allergenic effects, including increased erythema diameter, elevated specific immunoglobulin G titers, and higher levels of HIS and D-lactic acid. In contrast, glycinin inclusion at doses above 2% can induce some anti-nutrition effects, such as decreased apparent nutrient metabolic ratio, reduced digestive enzyme activities, and damaged small intestinal morphology. In addition, the information mentioned above implied that the sensitization threshold of glycinin administration in the piglets was 8.779\u202fmg\/g and the anti-nutrition threshold was 16.857\u202fmg\/g.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1646816","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T05:44:27Z","timestamp":1756446267000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The study of the antinutritional threshold of glycinin in piglets: impact on growth performance, nutrient digestion, allergic reactions, intestinal permeability and morphology"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Ning","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xueliang","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bolin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingzhen","family":"Zhong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nan","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zewei","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4014","DOI":"10.1021\/jf070211o","article-title":"Identification, characterization, epitope mapping, and three-dimensional modeling of the \u03b1-subunit of \u03b2-conglycinin of soybean, a potential allergen for young pigs","volume":"55","author":"Fu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/17450390802066419","article-title":"Effects of soybean glycinin on performance and immune function in early weaned pigs","volume":"62","author":"Sun","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch Anim Nutr"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.2008.03148.x","article-title":"Soybean \u03b2-conglycinin as the main allergen in a patient with food-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis by tofu: food processing alters pepsin resistance","volume":"39","author":"Adachi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Exp Allergy"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3792","DOI":"10.1021\/jf035072z","article-title":"Structural characteristics of purified glycinin from soybeans stored under various conditions","volume":"52","author":"Hou","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2007.03.031","article-title":"Proteomic and genetic analysis of glycinin subunits of sixteen soybean genotypes","volume":"45","author":"Natarajan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Plant Physiol Bioch"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13975","article-title":"Transport of glycinin, the major soybean allergen, across intestinal epithelial IPEC-J2 cell monolayers","volume":"108","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Anim Physiol An N"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1021\/jf001110s","article-title":"\u0392-Conglycinin and glycinin in high-protein soybean seeds","volume":"49","author":"Yaklich","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/09540100903563597","article-title":"Comparative study on the residual rate of immunoreactive soybean glycinin (11S) in the digestive tract of pigs of different ages","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Agric Immunol"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2841","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-023-03188-8","article-title":"Soybean glycinin and \u03b2-conglycinin damage the intestinal barrier by triggering oxidative stress and inflammatory response in weaned piglets","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur J Nutr"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.2003.63","article-title":"Effects of moist extruded full-fat soybeans on gut morphology and mucosal cell turnover time of weanling pigs","volume":"16","author":"Qiao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Asian Australas J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnutbio.2007.08.007","article-title":"Effects of glycinin on IgE-mediated increase of mast cell numbers and histamine release in the small intestine","volume":"19","author":"Sun","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Nutr Biochem"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1080\/17450390802190318","article-title":"Disappearance of immunoreactive glycinin and beta-conglycinin in the digestive tract of piglets","volume":"62","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch Anim Nutr"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5194","DOI":"10.1021\/jf904536v","article-title":"Inbred Chinese Wuzhishan (WZS) minipig model for soybean glycinin and \u03b2-conglycinin allergy","volume":"58","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051x.2016.1148559","article-title":"Effects of soybean antigen proteins on intestinal permeability, 5-hydroxytryptamine levels and secretory IgA distribution in the intestine of weaned piglets","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ital J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1080\/17450390902860026","article-title":"Soybean \u03b2-conglycinin-induced gut hypersensitivity reaction in a piglet model","volume":"63","author":"Hao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch Anim Nutr"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-35982004000700013","article-title":"Efeito das dietas de baixo teor de prote\u00edna bruta, suplementadas com amino\u00e1cidos, para leit\u00f5es machos castrados (15 a 30 kg)","volume":"33","author":"Oliveira","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev Bras Zootecn"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2090","DOI":"10.2527\/1994.7282090x","article-title":"Local and systemic immune responses to soybean protein ingestion in early-weaned pigs","volume":"72","author":"Dr\u00e9au","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2002.120551","article-title":"A neonatal swine model for peanut allergy","volume":"109","author":"Helm","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-80994-2","article-title":"N-acetylcysteine improves intestinal function and attenuates intestinal autophagy in piglets challenged with \u03b2-conglycinin","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.5713\/ab.21.0467","article-title":"Effects of substitution of soybean meal with rapeseed meal and glutamine supplementation on growth performance, intestinal morphology, and intestinal mucosa barrier of Qiandongnan Xiaoxiang chicken","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anim Biosci"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2600","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11092600","article-title":"Enzyme-treated soybean meal enhanced performance via improving immune response, intestinal morphology and barrier function of nursery pigs in antibiotic free diets","volume":"11","author":"Long","year":"2021","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.5713\/ajas.2011.10205","article-title":"Effect of feeding enzymolytic soybean meal on performance, digestion and immunity of weaned pigs","volume":"24","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Asian Aust J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1021\/jf802451g","article-title":"All three subunits of soybean \u03b2-conglycinin are potential food allergens","volume":"57","author":"Krishnan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Agric Food Chem"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1080\/1828051X.2016.1144488","article-title":"Induction of immune responses and allergic reactions in piglets by injecting glycinin","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ital J Anim Sci"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.46.5.661","article-title":"Purification, biochemical, and immunological characterisation of a major food allergen: different immunoglobulin E recognition of the apo- and calcium-bound forms of carp parvalbumin","volume":"46","author":"Bugajska-Schrette","year":"2000","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2006.04.053","article-title":"Predictive value of skin prick tests using recombinant allergens for diagnosis of peanut allergy","volume":"118","author":"Astier","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2017.05.008","article-title":"Effects of dietary glycinin on the growth performance, digestion, intestinal morphology and bacterial community of juvenile turbot, Scophthalmus maximus L","volume":"479","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsi.2018.10.013","article-title":"Effects of glycinin and \u03b2-conglycinin on growth performance and intestinal health in juvenile Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis)","volume":"84","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish Immunol"},{"key":"ref29","first-page":"115","article-title":"Influence of glycinin and \u0392-conglycinin of soybean on the proliferation and immune function of suckling piglets peripheral blood mononuclear cells in in vitro culture","volume":"19","author":"Jun","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Anim Plant Sci"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2025.154009","article-title":"Influence of the age of Turkey layerson selected serological parametersand the transfer of maternal antibodiesto chicks hatched from their eggs","volume":"28","author":"Wegner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pol J Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2025.154945","article-title":"The impact of using dried distillers grainswith solubles (DDGS) as a substitutefor concentrate feeds during the dry periodon the quality of bovine colostrumand the IgG levels in their calves\u2019 serum","volume":"28","author":"Pecka-Kie\u0142b","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pol J Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.2005.02415.x","article-title":"Evaluation of allergenicity of genetically modified soybean protein extract in a murine model of oral allergen-specific sensitization","volume":"36","author":"Gizzarelli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Exp Allergy"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1177\/014860718701100128","article-title":"The effect of the route of nutrient delivery on gut structure and diamine oxidase levels","volume":"11","author":"Thompson","year":"1987","journal-title":"J Parenter Enter Nutr"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e102285","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0102285","article-title":"Serum diamine oxidase as a hemorrhagic shock biomarker in a rabbit model","volume":"9","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8502","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms12128502","article-title":"Effects of soybean agglutinin on intestinal barrier permeability and tight junction protein expression in weaned piglets","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6500","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28186500","article-title":"Soybean antigen protein-induced intestinal barrier damage by trigging endoplasmic reticulum stress and disordering gut microbiota in weaned piglets","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13649","article-title":"Effects of a new fermented soya bean meal on growth performance, serum biochemistry profile, intestinal immune status and digestive enzyme activities in piglets","volume":"106","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2222.2001.01043.x","article-title":"Basophil histamine release tests in the diagnosis of allergy and asthma","volume":"31","author":"Crockard","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin Exp Allergy"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1159\/000108135","article-title":"Recombinant soybean protein \u03b2-conglycinin \u03b1\u2032-subunit expression and induced hypersensitivity reaction in rats","volume":"145","author":"Guo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int Arch Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2025.154027","article-title":"Honokiol remodeled the extracellular matrixand protected the intestinal tissue againstischemia-reperfusion injury in rats","volume":"28","author":"G\u00f6kalp \u00d6zkorkmaz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pol J Vet Sci"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1080\/09540105.2012.706262","article-title":"Distribution of glycinin in the gastrointestinal tissue of pigs at different growth stages","volume":"24","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Agric Immunol"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1080\/09540105.2012.704507","article-title":"Soybean glycinin-and \u03b2-conglycinin-induced intestinal immune responses in a murine model of allergy","volume":"24","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Agric Immunol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021859600069756","article-title":"Effect of weaning on the capacity of pig intestinal villi to digest and absorb nutrients","volume":"107","author":"Miller","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Agric Sci"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/09540101003596644","article-title":"Effects of glycinin and \u03b2-conglycinin on enterocyte apoptosis, proliferation and migration of piglets","volume":"21","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Agric Immunol"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Veterinary Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1646816\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]],"date-time":"2025-08-29T05:44:27Z","timestamp":1756446267000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1646816\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"references-count":44,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fvets.2025.1646816"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fvets.2025.1646816","relation":{},"ISSN":["2297-1769"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2297-1769","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,29]]},"article-number":"1646816"}}